童小华
【摘要】英语写作讲评是培养学生写作能力的重要一环。本文简要探讨错误分析和中介语理论,尝试分析学生英语写作中的典型错误,并试图建构指导学生研习范文的框架。
【关键词】英语写作讲评 错误分析 中介语理论
【中图分类号】H31 【文献标识码】A 【文章编号】2095-3089(2014)11-0117-02
一、引言
写作是实现“可理解的语言输出”(Swan, 1985)的一种重要形式。写作如何讲评也是教师们在教学中一直探索的问题。本文将以错误分析及中介语理论为指导,浅析学生英语写作中的典型错误,尝试建构指导学生研习范文的框架。
二、错误分析理论
错误分析理论是由S.P. Corder提出来的。错误分析是指对外语学习者所犯错误的分析和研究,包括五个步骤:收集分析资料、鉴别错误、错误分类、解释错误原因及评估错误影响。错误分析有助于了解学习者对目的语的熟悉程度与语言学习方式,是学习者习得语言的一种手段。
三、英语写作典型错误类型分析
(一)篇章结构方面的错误
学生习作缺乏思维的逻辑性和语义的连贯性,把文章变成了词汇的堆砌或简单地集合,主要体现在:
1.文章不切题
学生写作时,不能紧扣主题进行写作,致使文章主题不明确,观点不够鲜明。请看下面以“Trees”为题目的作文:
Trees are mans friends. ⑴We can see trees everywhere. ⑵ We plant trees every year. ⑶We can make tables with trees. ⑷Trees also give us fruits to eat. ⑸I like to eat fruits very much.
該段的主题句是Trees are mans friends, 写作应围绕“friends”,也就是树的用途展开。但第一、二、五扩展句偏离了树的用途这个主题,转而说我们到处可以看见树木、每年都种树和喜欢吃水果。段落框架松散,主题句抓不住,中心思想不明确。
2.上下文不连贯
上下文不连贯主要表现在句子衔接不自然流畅,该用连接词的地方没有用,或所用的连接词欠妥当。例如:
(原文)“No one knows the value of health until he loses it. Nothing is more valuable than health. Health is the foundation of ones future success. If you become sick, it is nearly impossible to pursue your career effectively, much less make your dream come true. If you are healthy and strong, you can go all out to overcome the obstacles that lie ahead of you.
此习作句与句之间几乎都没用连接词,致使全文衔接不流畅。改进后范文见下文“改稿”。
(二)语言表达方面的错误
学生英语写作中的语言表达错误有词汇和句法两个方面的错误。
1.词汇错误
词汇是英语写作的基本要素。学生所掌握的词汇量有限,容易出现各种的错误,导致似乎微妙的错误往往会影响意思的正确表达,甚至成为写作中的重大弊病。常见的错误类型有:
⑴ 拼写错误,如:
将true,even though,argument写成ture,even through,arguement 。
⑵ 用词不准确,如:
High score is aconsequence[误]result[正]of hard work
⑶ 词组搭配错误,如:
We must pay attention andmake a solution of[误]find a solution to[正]the problem.
⑷ 词性误用,如:
You are likely tosuccess[误]succeed[正]
if you haveconfident,diligent and int elligent[误]confidence,diligence and int elligence[正]
⑸ 生造词语,如:
颐和园Summer Garden[误]Yihe Park[误]the Summer Palace[正]
⑹ 单词形式错误
名词有数的形式;形容词与副词有三个等级;动词有六种不同的形式。学生在写作中出现形式错误屡见不鲜。
2.句法错误
句子是英语写作的基础。写出完整、正确和多变的句子是写好文章的关键。学生写作中主要的句法错误如下:
⑴ 残缺句
残缺句包括从属分句和短语,它们仅是句子的一部分,必须把它们附属在相应的句子中,不能独立成句。
① 误用非谓语动词的残缺句,如:
First of all,to take[误]we should take[正] into account the conditions of your family.
②从句的残缺句,如:
a. He is still likely to fail to pass the exam.Although[误],although[正]he tries very hard.
b. There are more and more peoplewill choose[误]who will choose[正]to study abroad.
③ 举例说明的残缺句,如:
There are many ways to know the society.For example,[误],for example[正]by TV, radio and?newspaper.
④ 省略错误
学生写作中省掉属于固定搭配的或有助于理解句意的词,以至于句子不完整,影响理解。如:
There are sufficient brands of mobile phones for us toto choose.[误]to choose from.[正]
⑵ 句子语序错误
英语中倒装语序,用以表示一定句子结构的需要或强调某一句子成分的需要。如:
Under no circumstanceswe shall[误]shall we[正] lose heart.
⑶ 句子成分关系不一致
句子具有主谓结构。充当谓语的动词总是在人称、数、时态、语态及语气五个方面保持一致。错误改变句子成分的一致关系会使句子逻辑混乱、意义含糊不清。
① 主谓不一致,如:
Smoking cigarettesare[误]is[正] harmful to your health.
② 时态不一致,如:
Students complained that the school canteen serviceis[误]was[正]terribly awful.
③ 语态不一致,如:
I do believe that not all books are worthbeing read.[误]reading[正]
④ 指代不一致,如:
We can also know the society by serving ityourselves[误]ourselves[正]
⑷ 悬垂修饰语
悬垂修饰语是指与句子中任何词都没有明显关系的短语或分句。学生习作中可将这些短语或分句扩展成从句。如:
a.At the age of ten,[误]When I was ten,[正] my grandfather died.
b. To do well in college,good grades are essential.[误]a student needs good grades.[正]
⑸ 中式英语
学生在写作过程中,受汉语思维习惯影响,采用逐字对等翻译的策略。其结果总是不大得体,甚至让人觉得废话连篇。如:
But have some people think neednt study abroad. [误]
But some people think we have no need to study abroad. [正]
四、指导学生研习范文策略
L. Selinker认为,第二语言学习者的语言是一个内在的语言系统,即中介语。中介语在结构上处于本族语和目的中间状态,逐渐向目的语接近,但常常产生石化(fossilization)。为避免石化过早出现,一方面教师应该更多地提供机会,让学生准确地、连贯地、恰当地表达信息,实现“可理解性输出”。另一方面,语言输出不是闭门造车,大量的语言输入必不可少。而优秀范文是实现可理解性语言输入的极佳载体。研习范文可做到“他山之石,可以攻玉”。本人在指导学生研习范文时主要侧重两个方面:文章段落和语言表达。
(一)分析文章段落
段落是由表达单一中心思想的一组句子构成,包括主题句, 扩展句及结论句。例如:
(主题句)Books are our teachers. (扩展句1)They hand down knowledge from generation to generation.(扩展句2)They teach us how to do things and how to live a meaningful life.(结论句)Therefore, we should read as many books as possible.
1.主题句
主题句(topic sentence)是表达段落主题的句子。主题句的关键词要写得完整、具体。这包括两个方面:一是要能控制和限制段落的发展;二是要能说明段落发展的方向。如:
主题句The English language is very important.[空乏不完整]The English language is very important in our daily life.[具体且完整] 2.扩展句
扩展句是围绕主题句展开,支持、说明和阐述主题句的句子。段落发展主要通过扩展句来实现,常用的方法有列举法、举例法、叙述法、对比法、因果分析法等。写作中,可以将若干方法穿插运用,使文章有声有色。
3.结论句
结论句是指用一句话将段落的内容进行归纳总结,要求简明扼要,符合主题句的主旨,不能简单的重复。
4.句子衔接手段的运用
清晰流畅的文章,需要巧妙的衔接手段。句子衔接手段有三大类:代词衔接,时间衔接和逻辑关系词语衔接。逻辑关系词语衔接使用表示逻辑关系的过渡词语作为衔接手段,如:表示强调的过渡词(moreover, in particular等)、用以举例的过渡词(for instance, namely等)、表示递进或补充的过渡词( in addition, besides等)、表示比較的过渡词(in the same way, similarly等)、表示对比、转折的过渡词(in contrast, on the contrary等)、表示让步的过渡词(nevertheless, in spite of等)、表示因果关系的过渡词(therefore,now that等)、表示总结的过渡词(in conclusion,thus等)、表达时间顺序或次序的过渡词(in the first place,eventually等)。
文章中是否恰当地使用了过渡词,写作的效果会大不一样。下文是对上面“原文”的改稿。
(改稿)As the proverb says,“No one knows the value of health until he loses it.” In other words, nothing is more valuable than health. It is clear that health is the foundation of ones future success. If you become sick, it is nearly impossible to pursue your career effectively, much less make your dreams come true. On the other hand, if you are healthy and strong, you can go all out to overcome the obstacles that lie ahead of you.
文中的粗體词语是过渡词。与“原文”对比不难看出恰当地运用过渡词可以使段落表达层次格外分明,并且文意流畅。
5.段落过渡手段运用
两个段落之间,往往有承上启下的词语,使上下段落过渡自然流畅、衔接紧密。与句子衔接手段类似,段落过渡也有代词过渡、时间词语过渡和逻辑关系词语过渡。最好的方式是在文章研习中注意积累,在写作中用心模仿。
(二)推敲文章语言表达
在作文教学中,老师要有意识地指导学生研习范文中的语言表达,活学活用。
1.总结范文中形容词与名词的搭配,如:
a. For various reasons, many students dont want to improve their handwriting.
b. The prompting of a prize does not always lead to desirable results.
2.总结范文中动词与名词的搭配,如:
a.Thus, more emphasis should be placed on improving students handwriting.
b.Today, whether students should study abroad has aroused wide public concern.
3.总结副词与动词、形容词的搭配
⑴ 动词+副词,如:
Doing sports regularly will make us relaxed both physically and mentally.
⑵副词+形容词,如:
They want to earn money to help cover the increasingly higher college tuition.
4.查找范文中带介词的短语
⑴ 动词+介词,如:
Experts point out that physical exercise contributes directly to our fitness.
⑵ 名词+介词(或介词+名词),如:
a. With the rapid development of science, now we have easy access to the Internet.
b. Tourism may bring about a disastrous impact on local environment and history.
⑶ 形容词+介词,如:
Any government, which is blind to this point, may have to pay a heavy price.
5.体会语序,注意英汉比较,如:
a. So precious is time that we can't afford to waste it.
b. Look as I would up and down, I could see no human being.
6.研究范文句子开端,追求表达变化
⑴ 形式代词it开头,如:
It is conceivable that knowledge plays an important role in our life.
⑵ 介词短语开头,如:
With the opening and reform policy being carried out, foreign visitors are crowding into our country.
⑶ 非谓语动词开头,如:
Compared with other countries, China has a much larger population.
⑷状语开头,如:
Unfortunately, humans are too greedy to protect wild animals.
⑸ 从句开头,如:
When it comes to education, the majority of people believe that education is a lifetime study.
五、结语:尊重学生,放飞梦想
中介语、石化现象存在于学生语言习得的整个过程。教师应理性地对待学生的错误及石化现象,积极提供反馈,不断提高学生语言表达的准确性;鼓励学生大量阅读研习优秀英语文章,做到善于积累,善于模仿,善于借鉴,从而让学生熟练驾驭英语,突破英语写作。
参考文献:
[1]张国杨,朱亚夫. 外语教育语言学. 广西:广西教育出版社. 1998
[2]薄冰. 英语语法. 北京:开明出版社. 2002
[3]Corder, S. P. The Significance of Learners Errors [J]. In?鄄ternational Review of Applied Linguistics. 1967
[4]Selinker, L. Rediscovering Interlanguage. Longman. 1972