《二语习得中的重要话题》评介

《二语习得中的重要话题》评介

常辉徐俪珑

(上海交通大学,上海,200240)

Cook, V. & D. Singleton. 2014.KeyTopicsinSecondLanguageAcquisition. Croydon: Multilingual Matters. ISBN: 9781783091799. pp. ⅹⅲ+149.

《二语习得中的重要话题》由Multilingual Matters出版社于2014年4月出版。它不是一本全面介绍二语习得的书,而是作者根据对二语习得的理解和研究讲述了二语习得领域的八个重要话题。

第一章“不同语言如何在大脑中连接”讲述母语和二语在大脑中的关系。这是二语习得研究的一个基本但非常重要的话题。作者阐述了三种可能的关系:一、并列,两种语言没有任何联系;二、融合,两种语言通过共享的概念系统完全融合在一起,即两种语言拥有同一个概念系统,这个概念系统可以通过两种语言中的任何一种来表达;三、从属,部分二语通过对等翻译而非概念直接与一语联系起来。同一大脑中的两种语言不可能完全没有关系,也不可能拥有同一个概念系统而完全融合在一起,最有可能的是二语和母语在对等的部分融合,在不对等的部分隔离,即从属关系。二语习得者的二语和母语在多大程度上融合则存在个体差异。另外,二语习得者还可能在不同语言层面表现出不同的融合度,比如在写作方面融合度高,在口语方面融合度低。

第二章的标题是“二语学习是否有最佳年龄”。大多数人认为儿童时期是开始学习二语的最佳时期,还提出了“关键期假说”。“关键期假说”在一语习得中被广泛证实和接受,但在二语习得中还存在较大争议。争议的焦点在于,是否存在关键期,是否存在多个关键期,如果存在,关键期具体是什么时间。基于生成语法理论的二语习得利用“关键期假说”来解释成人和儿童二语习得存在质的差异,因为普遍语法在儿童二语习得中可及,但在成人二语习得中不可及。DeKeyser(2000)的解释是,成人的二语学习是有意识的,而儿童的二语学习是无意识的。

此外,本章作者还谈到年龄对二语学习的影响。对于在自然环境下习得二语来说,基本上是越早越好,但作者强调这只是一个倾向,因为年龄只是影响二语习得的一个因素,历史上不乏成年后开始习得二语而取得成功的案例。对于在教学环境下学习二语来说,由于二语学习基本上是有意识进行的,大龄学习者会显示出更大的优势。作者最后指出,只要有动力、能坚持,任何年龄开始学习二语都能成功。

作者简介:常辉,上海交通大学外国语学院教授、博士生导师。主要研究方向为二语习得。电子邮箱:jameschanghui@163.com

徐俪珑,上海交通大学外国语学院研究生。主要研究方向为二语习得。电子邮箱:babybear747@hotmail.com

第三章“如何习得二语词汇”指出,由于二语习得者已经拥有一种语言,他们在学习二语词汇时会将二语词汇与母语词汇联系起来,母语有助于二语词汇的学习。而且二语水平越低,母语的作用越大,随着二语水平的提高,二语习得者的二语词汇知识的自主性增强。对于与母语词汇意义差别不大的二语词汇,他们只需要做非常小的调整即可掌握,对于与母语词汇意义差别较大或者母语中没有对应词的二语词汇,他们极容易犯扩大或缩小其外延的错误。此后,作者重点谈了两种二语词汇学习方式:有意识学习和无意识学习。前者是将词汇独立于语境单独学习,典型的就是背词汇表、词汇书、甚至词典。有意识学习词汇的优势是在短时间内能够接触到数量较多的目标词汇,容易把注意力放在目标词汇上,目标词汇的重复记忆能够得到保证,在一定程度上可以说效率较高。其最大的缺陷是将词汇独立于语境,容易遗忘,有时即使记住了也不会用。无意识学习主要是通过阅读附带性地习得词汇,不专门记忆或学习词汇,而是把注意力放在意义上。这种记忆法的优势是注重词汇在不同语境中的意义,有助于准确使用,但缺陷是在一定时间内接触的目标词汇数量太小,重复记忆机会少,记忆效果没有保证。而且,有时由于语境信息不够丰富使得词义理解不够精确。由此可见,这两种词汇学习方法各有利弊,因而大多数人提倡两种方法结合,弥补对方的缺陷,比如在有意识学习词汇时增加例句,在一定程度上弥补语境缺失;在无意识学习词汇时给目标词投入更多的精力和时间。

第四章讲述二语语法习得。作者指出,二语语法的发展不是从零开始逐渐增加一直到目标语语法的过程,而是一个在母语、二语输入和教学等基础上以母语为起点逐渐向目标语靠近的过程。它是一个既不同于母语也不同于目标语有着自身特点的系统,而不是有缺陷的目标语。它可以无限向目标语靠近,但永远不会到达目标语。因此,用目标语来衡量中介语是不合理的。另外,不同母语背景的二语习得者会有许多相似表现。比如,英语二语习得者都会丢失屈折词缀,错误使用冠词和出现怪异语序。当然,母语迁移在二语习得中也非常普遍,它不局限于母语对二语,还可以是二语对母语,称为反迁移;还可以是母语和二语之间,称为双向迁移;还可以是二语对三语或三语对二语,称为侧迁移。迁移逐渐被语际影响代替,因为迁移描述语言间的影响不是很准确,而且语际影响有时表现为回避,用迁移不能描述。磨蚀是语际影响研究的一个新兴领域,它指的是母语或二语由于使用较少或受到其它语言系统的影响而减退。最后,作者以语法语素、语序和冠词为例阐述了二语语法习得。

第五章讲述二语中的拼写问题以及母语书写系统对二语书写的影响。诸多因素导致二语习得者存在字母多余、遗漏或替代等拼写问题。首先,受母语影响,正确拼读二语很困难。其次,二语习得者由于受到母语音节结构的影响也会在二语发音和拼写时产生错误。最后,复杂的拼写规则以及拼写规则存在例外也会给二语习得者的带来拼写麻烦。另外,母语的书写体系也会影响二语书写,我们还经常看到中国学生在英语中使用汉语标点符号。

第六章“态度和动机如何促进二语习得”中的态度主要包括对目标语本身、操目标语的人群及其文化以及学习过程中诸多因素的看法。与态度密切相关的是动机,它是产生、维持某种意愿和追求某个目标的动力。态度和动机是学习的两个非常重要的因素,决定学习者在学习过程中的积极参与度。

二语中的态度研究对象主要是移民,关注的焦点是涵化,即具有某种文化的人是否愿意采纳另一种文化的思维和行为模式。Berry(1980)提出了涵化的四种结果:同化(放弃自身文化)、融合(保留自身文化,同时接受目标文化)、拒绝(不接受目标文化)和文化丢失(身份丧失,被边缘化)。在教学环境下,二语习得者的态度还包括他们对教学的反应,学习上的成功和愉快的学习经历不仅有助于他们形成积极的学习态度,还能够提高他们二语交流的意愿。

二语中的动机研究十分丰富。Gardner(1985)的动机理论将动机分为融合性和工具性两种。前者指二语习得者对目标语人群及其生活方式抱有积极态度,并有与目标语人群融合的愿望,往往用于在自然环境下学习二语;后者指二语习得者想通过二语学习达到某个实际目的,如通过某个考试,往往用于在教学环境下学习外语。融合性和工具性动机并不相互排斥,二语习得者可以同时拥有这两种动机。不过,这种分类也有问题。一是有遗漏,二语学习还存在其它动机,如对知识的好奇、军事任务、保持身份,甚至炫耀等。二是动机在二语习得过程中是动态的,二语习得者每天、每个任务的动机都可能不一样。Vallerand(1997)的动机理论将动机分为内在和外在两种,前者指学习者由于学习活动和环境自身产生的学习动机,后者指学习者由于某个规定(如通过某个考试)而产生的学习动机。内在动机与自主学习密切相关,自主学习要求学习者具有内在动机。这个分类与Gardner的分类也存在相似之处,如融合性动机往往是内在的,工具性动机往往是外在的。但二者都忽视了动机的动态性、复杂性和可调控性,今后的研究需要更多地关注过程。

第七章通过回顾三种最具影响力的二语教学法(语法翻译法、听说法和交际法)阐述二语习得研究对二语教学的影响。作者根据Wilkins(1990)将教学法分为传统教学法和现代教学法。前者的理念是,精通一种语言需要掌握其基本事实和规则,教学的任务就是教语言事实和规则,使用的方法基本是演绎法,语法翻译法属于这一种;后者的理念是,要成功学习语言,明晰化的语言事实和规则并不像高质量的语言经历那么有效,语言是在使用中习得的,教学的任务就是创造语言使用的环境,使用的方法基本上是归纳法,听说法属于这一种。交际法则是传统和现代教学法的结合。语法翻译法可以追溯到古罗马时期的希腊语教学,中世纪被广泛用于拉丁语教学,一直到二战前都是非常流行的外语教学方法。由于二语习得研究是70年代以后才发展起来的,语法翻译法很显然没有吸收二语习得研究的任何东西,而是在常识和经验基础上形成的。听说法是二战后期美国为培训军人而创造的二语教学法,上世纪50年代到70年代比较流行。它不是语言教育者创造的,而是结构主义语言学家创造的,该方法出现时二语习得研究还没起步,因此也没有吸收二语习得研究成果。但比语法翻译法先进的是,它吸收了结构主义语言学和行为主义心理学的思想。交际法是基于学习者的需求和期望,吸收了语法翻译法和听说法的优点而发展起来的,从上世纪70年代以来逐渐成为最流行的外语教学方法。它力求将学习者在实际生活中的二语使用与课堂语言教学与学习联系起来,需求与真实性是交际法的出发点。

第八章思考“语言教学的目标是什么”。现代外语教学的理念是教学要满足二语学习者的需求,教学首先要了解二语学习者的需求。作者按学习二语的目的将二语学习者分为七类,认为对他们的二语教学就是要帮助他们达到各自的目的。当然,二语学习可能会有多个目的,各个分类并不具有排他性。比如,学习二语可以同时想与外国朋友交流、出国旅游、参加国际会议、完成课程要求等。

本章作者还阐述了二语学习是否成功不能以母语使用者为判断标准,因为母语使用者存在个体差异,以什么样的母语使用者为判断标准是一个问题。更重要的是,母语使用者也有很多不标准的用法。而且,二语学习者已经掌握了一门语言,也不可能成为二语的母语使用者。作者认为,只要能够有效交流的二语学习者都是成功的。作者在后记中强调,二语学习是动态的和复杂的,加上二语学习者存在个体差异,想要搞清楚二语学习是非常困难的,但随着二语习得研究的深入,这是有希望的。另外,作者提倡二语习得研究要更多地将二语教学纳入其框架,二语教学也要更多地吸收二语习得的研究成果。

总体来看,该书涵盖了二语习得中比较重要的话题,有的话题(如母语和二语的关系)是二语习得研究的前沿课题,有的(如二语学习年龄)比较实际,还有的(如二语书写、二语习得与外语教学的关系)谈论的还比较少。另外,该书谈论的大多是二语习得研究中的基础话题,是一本比较好的二语习得入门书籍。当然,该书不是全面介绍二语习得的书,一些其它的重要话题并未涉及,如二语习得中的输入、输出、反馈、焦虑、策略、语音和语用发展等。另外,二语习得研究的最新发展也鲜有涉及,如接口知识的习得和二语加工及其神经认知机制等。各章的话题谈论的也不是很深入,都只是点到为止。

不过,该书谈到的话题都具有非常重要的理论或实际意义。其中,母语和二语在大脑中的关系是二语习得研究的本源问题,具有非常重要的理论意义,有助于我们了解语言在大脑中的表征方式。这个课题可以利用功能性磁共振成像(fMRI)技术,通过二语和母语刺激考察大脑的激活区域来研究。当然,这个问题还可能与二语习得者学习二语的起始年龄关系密切,学习二语越早,母语和二语在大脑中的融合度很可能越高。与之密切相关的另一个问题是二语习得者对目标语句法、语义和词汇的加工,重要的课题包括二语习得者对目标语句法、语义和词汇的加工方式与母语使用者存在质的差异还是量的差异,二语和母语词汇的存储和提取是否在大脑的同一区域,等。这些课题都可以通过心理认知或神经认知实验手段进行研究。

本书谈论的其他话题更具有现实意义。学习二语的最佳年龄问题是其中的一个,尤其是对于作为世界上英语学习人数最多的中国来说。本书的观点是,通过正规课堂教学学习英语,开始学习英语的年龄并不具有决定意义,学习动力和坚持最重要。因此,英语教学应该着重激发学生英语学习动力,尤其是对于初学者来说,而不应该一味地宣传越早学英语越好。相反,过早学习外语还会有一些害处。一是很可能会影响母语学习,至少会影响对母语的感知和加工。二是可能会影响汉语思维方式。三是师资不足或不准确的发音难以纠正,有的甚至抹杀了孩子的英语学习兴趣,这对他们今后的英语学习是灾难性的。

教学与二语习得研究的脱节是本书谈到的另一个非常具有实际意义的话题。从理论上讲,要想知道怎么教,就要先知道学生怎么学,因为学生毕竟是学习的主体;要想知道教什么,就要先知道学生想学什么,社会需要什么,因为有需要的东西才是有价值的。历史上流行的教学法几乎都没有二语习得研究基础,只有交际法吸收了一些二语习得的研究成果,考虑了学习者的需求,但还远远不够。这客观上需要外语教学工作者更多地关注二语习得研究,二语习得研究者更多地考虑外语教学问题,并做好相互间的交流衔接工作。

参考文献

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DeKeyser, R. 2000. The robustness of critical period effects in second language acquisition [J].StudiesinSecondLanguageAcquisition22: 499-533.

Gardner, R. C. 1985.SocialPsychologyandSecondLanguageLearning:TheRoleofAttitudesandMotivation[M]. London: Edward Arnold.

Rokita, J. 2006. Comparing early L2 lexical development in naturalistic and instructional settings [A]. In J. Leniewska & E. Witalisz (eds.).LanguageandIdentity:EnglishandAmericanStudiesintheAgeofGlobalization[C]. Krakow: Jagiellonian University Press. 70-82.

Vallerand, R. J. 1997. Toward a hierarchical model of intrinsic and extrinsic motivation [J].AdvancesinExperimentalSocialPsychology29: 271-360.

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(责任编辑吴诗玉)

Abstracts of Major Papers in This Issue

His Philosophical Ideas Are Still with Us, by HUANG Guowen, p. 6

In this article the author recalls his communications with Professor XU Guozhang (born 100 years ago), during the 1980s and the 1990s, whose ideas of foreign language education and academic studies have influenced China’s foreign language teaching, learning and research for the past decades. The importance and value of teacher-student relationships in the Chinese context are also highlighted in this article.

Obligations and Missions of Foreign Language Discipline: On Professor Xu Guozhang’s Tribute to Foreign Language Education, by SHEN Qi, p. 11

Foreign Language Discipline in China owes much to Professor Xu Guozhang’s contributions to foreign language education. Thumbing through Professor Xu’s works, this paper critically reviews on disciplinary challenges and proposes to promote the institutional, academic and pedagogical thoughts of Professor Xu. It concludes by advocating four approaches to strengthening disciplinary development.

Thousands of Grateful Students in Tribute to Thee as Peach and Plumb Trees in Bloom Every Year, by CHANG Fengqi, p. 15

This article is the author’s recollection of the steps he has taken onto the path of English learning and teaching under the beacon of the late Professor Xu Guozhang. In high school the author decided to choose English as his major of study at university. Since entry into the university he has stepped into the palace of English learning, and the four years of majoring in English was completed with the reading of Professor Xu’s essays on English learning. In the course of postgraduate studies and in the English teaching career, he was ushered to English teaching and research through the reading of Prof. Xu’s academic papers. Though never favored the chance to meet Prof. Xu in person, the author has proudly recognized the professor as his own tutor. This article is thus written in commemoration of a deceased mentor.

Study on the Metaphorical Mechanism of Verb with Thinking Activity Meaning, by PENG Yuhai & LV Ye, p. 18

Thinking activity belongs to human’s spirit and will action of invisible hierarchy, often needs to be expressed through method of metaphoric-cognitive semantics in language. The paper selects typical verb word and verbal phrase, idiom with shift meaning of thinking activity as object, and analyzes metaphor mechanism and cognitive operation of the unique thinking verb from metaphorical image schema and cognitive model. The analysis would widen horizons of verbal metaphorical research, provide new theoretical clue for exploring verbal cognitive semantics and metaphor theory, and moreover, provide new revelation for studying verb polysemy and its cognitive semantics.

The Reversibility of Figure-Ground Theory and the Cognitive Mechanism of Metonymy, by LU Junyu, p. 24

The reversal of Figure-Ground organization not only illuminates the reversibility of metonymic mappings but also finds its way to set up a holistic framework to elaborate the cognitive mechanisms in generating and construing metonymy which are two reverse cognitive processes occurring in different time and space, and, therefore, it is inadvisable and misleading to mix up the two processes or only pay attention to either of them in metonymic research.

Philosophical Foundation and Cultural Mapping of Love Metaphors in English and Chinese from a Perspective of Cognitive Linguistics, by HE Jie & ZHOU Liuxi, p. 30

The traditional metaphorical view believes that a metaphor is a figure of speech without a metonymic word and its basic paradigm is A is B. Meanwhile, it is regarded as a pure linguistic phenomenon and simple rhetorical device, and the study on it is limited to the category of rhetorical device and literature. However, with the deeper development of metaphor studies in cognitive linguistics, metaphor is regarded not only as a linguistic phenomenon, but also as an important tool and thinking mode of human beings to know the world. On the basis of analyzing a considerable amount of metaphorical expressions about love in English and Chinese with a comparative way from the perspective of cognitive linguistics, this paper elaborates the philosophical foundation of their common and different traits showing the relative cognitive mechanism and reflecting the nature of cultural mapping.

A Study on Problems with the Curriculum for Postgraduate Students of English Majors in Chinese Tertiary Institutions, by CHANG Junyue & YU Xinhui, p. 40

Curriculum is an important part of postgraduates’ education. In view of the inadequate attention to curriculum study for English-majoring postgraduates, this study probed the problem concerning curriculum through a qualitative study of a typical educational institution for English-majoring postgraduates with in-depth interview as an instrument of data collection. The study discovered the problems of disproportionated courses on English studies and non-English studies, inadequate offering of important courses, insufficient guidance in postgraduates’ selection of courses, and unbalanced courses for theory and practice. Causes of the problems were examined and their coping strategies were proposed. The findings are likely to benefit the development of curriculum for English-majoring postgraduates in Chinese tertiary institutions.

The Impact of Different Cooperative Learning Patterns on Learners’ Positive Interdependence and Autonomous Learning Ability, by ZHANG Mulin & SONG Hongbo, p. 44

This study explores the impact of different cooperative learning patterns on learners’ positive interdependence and English autonomous learning ability. Based on the hypothesis of “output-driven, input-enabled”, this study designs a blended cooperative learning pattern. A 24-week contrastive teaching experiment and a questionnaire survey reveal that, learners engaged in blended cooperative learning show a significantly higher degree of positive interdependence, especially resource interdependence. Blended cooperative learning also resulted in significantly higher autonomous learning ability in general, but improvement with the strategy-oriented ability is not so obvious. Correlation analysis suggests that positive interdependence and its two forms, i.e., goal interdependence and resource interdependence, are all positively correlated with autonomous learning ability, but the correlation between resource interdependence and autonomous learning ability is significantly stronger. To ensure the effectiveness of cooperative learning and thereby improve learners’ autonomous learning ability, teachers should make improve evaluative mechanism, pinpoint individual accountability, conduct explicit strategy-oriented teaching and reinforce constructive guidance on learners’ cooperative learning.

The Poetic Features of Xi Jinping’s Important Expositions and Their Translation: From a Perspective of Soft Power, by CHEN Wei, p. 59

The way Xi Jinping expounds his series views on the governance of China presents a new poetic appearance to the world. The paper firstly analyzes the poetic features of Xi’s important expositions, and then studies how the poetic features could produce mutual influence over our national soft power, from the perspective of which how Xi’s important expositions should be translated is accordingly explored.