浙江
概要写作提供一篇350词以内的短文,要求考生基于该短文写出一篇60词左右的内容概要。虽然词数只有60左右,但概要写作耗时较长,主要难在:一方面,要读透原文,找全要点;另一方面,要高度概括,独立而连贯地原创语言。思维导图具有条理性、贴合性、概括性等特点,能帮助学生快速厘清思路,识记所学,高效备考。教师可以引入思维导图,引导学生使用思维导图,在教与学中有效地训练概要写作,夯实概要写作语言基础。下面,笔者结合具体实例,谈谈如何借助思维导图,在训练中备考概要写作。
概要写作是读写结合的考查形式,主要考查学生对文章主旨大意的理解、对文章整体结构的把握,考查学生是否能准确获取重要信息,并对其进行语言重组,简要概括原文的主要内容。考生只有读懂原文,才能“去次存主”,抓住要点。因此,在拿到一篇概要写作后,首先要快速通读原文,明了大意。
【概要写作原文】
Researchers who use animals in psychological experiments must make every effort to minimize(最小化)discomfort,illness,and pain.And procedures that cause animals great suffering are permitted only when no other procedure is available.Moreover,there are federal regulations stating how animals are to be housed,fed,and preserved.Not only must researchers try very hard to avoid causing physical discomfort,they are also required to promote the psychological well-being of some species of research animals,such as monkeys.
Why should animals be used for research in the first place? Is it really possible to learn about human behavior from the results of research employing rats and pigeons? The answer is that psychological research that does employ animals has a different focus and is designed to answer different questions than research that use humans.For example,the shorter life span of animals (rats live an average of two years) allows researchers to learn about the effects of aging in a much smaller period than they could by using human participants.Moreover,some principles of behavior are similar across species,and so some basic behavioral phenomena can be studied more simply in animals.Finally,some studies require large numbers of participants that share similar backgrounds or have been exposed to particular environments—conditions that could not practically be met with human beings.
Research using animals has provided psychologists with information that has greatly benefited humans.For example,it provided the keys to noticing eye disorders in children early enough to prevent permanent damage.
Despite the value of research with animal participants,the use of animals in psychological research is highly controversial.For example,some critics believe that animals have rights no less significant than those of humans,and that because animals are unable to agree to participation in studies,their use is not moral.Others object to the use of animals on methodological(方法论的)grounds,saying it is impossible to generalize from findings on nonhuman species to humans.
快速通读上面概要写作原文可知,其介绍了动物心理实验,具体包括为什么要用动物进行研究、动物实验的优势以及其引起的公众争议。
说明文、议论文和记叙文是概要写作原文的通常文体,其篇章结构有所不同。说明文的阐述方式有举例说明、因果说明、类比(对比)说明,结构通常为:引言(概说主题、问题、现象)→正文(分说说明)→结尾(总说总结);议论文结构通常为:引论(提出观点)→本论(论证观点)→结论(重申观点);记叙文一般按照时间顺序展开,由核心“六要素”(when,where,who,what,how,why)构成,情节的推进包括开端、发展、高潮、结局,其结构通常为:引言(引出故事)→正文(发展故事)→结尾(结束故事)。对于这三种文体及其结构,笔者用思维导图总结如下,方便学生识记:
上述例文为说明文,主题是Psychological experiments on animals,文章结构可以用思维导图表达为:
主题句多位于段首或段尾,也有位于段中的情况。英语思维模式一般是直线演绎的,开门见山亮观点,再解释说明,因此段首句常为主题句,其他则为支撑句,对主题句作说明、解释、补充、支持等;段尾主题句则是对全段内容进行总结,予以强调,给读者留下深刻印象;段中主题句多为转折句,段首通常是引言,呈现话题,然后由however,but,yet,anyhow,nevertheless,although等词连接,话锋一转,切入主要观点。也有一种情况,没有主题句,需要归纳和概括,多是段落中由and,moreover,also等词连接,为并列关系。因此,主题句的位置可概括为:
上述例文中各段的主题句可以呈现为:
句子之间通常存在以下逻辑关系,各逻辑关系之下的主次信息也有所不同,总结如下:
其中,转折关系,要点通常在转折部分,即转折后的句子;因果关系,分为前因后果或者前果后因,需根据作者的写作意图确定主次信息;解释关系,是一个句子提出主题,其他句子进行解释、说明,被解释的句子为主要点。
根据句子之间的逻辑分析,学生可以对上述例文中各段的主次信息进行梳理,用思维导图表达如下:
值得注意的是,次要信息常被学生直接忽略、删除,这是不可取的。概要写作,并非简单地砍掉次要信息,呈现主要信息;而是重在“词少信息全”,以“概要”表达“要点”,“麻雀虽小,五脏俱全”,使读者读了概要短文,了解全部主次信息。概要写作又好比拍照,照片虽小,可窥全貌。因此,对于次要信息,也要视情况而定,适当写进去。
结合主题句,学生还可以在语篇中找出关键词,通过关键词串联主要信息,帮助其综合概括出独立的主要要点。关键词主要有以下四类:1.陈述主体(话题实词),即语篇的陈述对象、主要话题、中心观点等;2.陈述主体的谓语动词,即对陈述对象进行陈述的谓语动词;3.高频重复词,即在语篇中频繁出现的词,这些词往往是作者反复强调或重点体现的内容,往往是关键词;4.概括性实词,这些词常是上义词,由下义词对此进行解释、论证或补充,具有概括性,也是关键词。学生可用思维导图辅助识记:
到此,学生可以对例文的主要要点独立表达为:Researchers who use animals in psychological experiments must follow procedures and regulations to avoid animals’ physical and psychological discomfort.(要点一)Psychological research that employs animals aims to learn about human behaviors in a much smaller period,more simply and more practically.(要点二)Research using animals provides psychologists with information that has greatly benefited humans,like preventing eye disorders.(要点三)Despite the value of research,the use of animals in psychological research is highly controversial for animals’ equal rights,researchers’ being not moral and not good methods.(要点四)
概要写作要求“完全使用自己的语言”,即要求学生用自己的话来表达原文的要点。有些学生苦于缺乏“一义多词”的积累,不能有效地替换词汇,只能“照搬原文”,降低了表达的自主性,拉低了分数。因此,在平时学习中,学生要有意识地积累同义词、反义词和派生词,以便在概要写作中根据语境灵活替换,摆脱“摘抄原文”的写作模式,提高自主表达的表征性。学生可以用思维导图,既留出足够空间,又结构紧凑地积累词汇。以名词为例:
另外,动词:get (acquire),improve (promote),reduce(decrease),help (assist),etc.;形容词:rich (wealthy),happy(delighted),clever (smart),obvious (evident),etc.;副词:only (merely),greatly (much),often (frequently),gradually(steadily),etc.;词性互换:prefer (preference),compare(comparison),make a decision (decide),a variety of (various),etc.;反义词(正话反说):accept (refuse),alive (dead),allow (forbid),empty (full),etc.以上可互换的词汇,可分别以思维导图呈现,进行积累、识记。
现在,学生对例文概要写作中的有些词汇,适当进行替换:要点一:must →should,regulations →rules,avoid animals’→help animals avoid,discomfort →suffering;要点二:employ →use,in a much smaller period →more effectively;要点三:provide...with...→offer...to...,greatly →much;要点四:despite →although,value →valuable,is highly controversial →has caused sharp arguments,being not moral →immorality,not good →imperfect。形成如下短文:
Researchers who use animals in psychological experiments should follow procedures and rules to help animals avoid physical and psychological suffering.(要点一)Psychological research that uses animals aims to learn about human behaviors more effectively,more simply and more practically.(要点二)Research using animals offers information to psychologists that has benefited humans much,like preventing eye disorders.(要点三)Although the research is valuable,the use of animals in psychological research has caused sharp arguments for animals’equal rights,researchers’immorality and imperfect methods.(要点四)
语篇内存在句际和段际的逻辑关系,在概要写作中,也要体现出来。理顺逻辑关系,才能连贯表达,也才能更加缜密地通过概要写作表达出原文的主要内容和内在逻辑、思想,让读者“以点见面”。而在独立表达要点后,段际逻辑关系就体现为独立要点之间的句际关系。因此,需要分析独立要点在原文中的逻辑关系,并适当地运用连接词(副词、连词和部分短语)表达逻辑关系,或运用语法关系(人称照应、指示照应等)与语法结构(从句、分词结构等)的连接功能,使得概要写作表达连贯。学生可以通过以下思维导图的方式,积累各类逻辑关系的衔接词,随时补充,清晰识记:
例文中的概要写作,学生就可以通过这样的方法,进行修改:要点三:research using animals与要点二同主语,可用it指代。与要点二为递进关系,加副词also;要点四:与前面为转折关系,将although改为however。形成短文如下:
Researchers who use animals in psychological experiments should follow procedures and rules to help animals avoid physical and psychological suffering.(要点一)Psychological research that uses animals aims to learn about human behaviors more effectively,more simply and more practically.(要点二)It also offers information to psychologists that has benefited humans much,like preventing eye disorders.(要点三)The research is valuable,however,the use of animals in psychological research has caused sharp arguments for animals’equal rights,researchers’ immorality and imperfect methods.(要点四)
概要写作除考查学生的概括性思维能力外,更注重考查其语言运用能力,检测其综合运用语言的基本功。概要写作,学生想要获得高分,不仅要写对句子,更要写好句子。应在基础表达之外,提升句式运用的档次,通过高级、复杂的句式与简短句的互换等,优化句子结构,使得句式多样,花样表达,提档提分。可以用思维导图将常用的高级句式、语法表达等概括如下,并以“图”的形式“嵌入”脑海,提醒自己在写作时要适时运用:
针对例文的概要写作,学生可以优化句式,进行花样表达:要点一:定语从句改为分词结构;要点二:定语从句删除,并改为短语表达;要点三:定语从句改为介词短语。形成终稿如下:
Researchers using animals in psychological experiments should follow procedures and rules to help animals avoid physical and psychological suffering.(要点一)Research makes psychologists able to learn about human behaviors more effectively,more simply and more practically.(要点二)It also offers information to psychologists for much benefit of humans like preventing eye disorders.(要点三)The research is valuable,however,the use of animals in psychological research has caused sharp arguments for animals’equal rights,researchers’ immorality and imperfect methods.(要点四)
借助思维导图,重在借助其便利性、清晰性和助于识记的优势。在使用思维导图时要注意以下几个方面的原则:
1.简便性原则。在日常教学和学习中,不是一定要使用思维导图工具作图,不必复杂、美观、花哨。可以根据内容和自己的思考,以方便达成目的为宗旨,随手作图,帮助自己积累知识,梳理思路,方便记忆等。
2.灵活性原则。思维导图没有固定的模板,也没有固有的模式,可根据需求,灵活地创造属于自己的独特的思维导图。甚至在作好的思维导图中,还可以根据内容需求进行二次创造。
3.适度性原则。思维导图是一种简单、有效和实用的有效思维图形工具,广泛用于教与学活动中。但思维导图并不适用于所有内容,也不是什么内容都要用思维导图来展现。要根据学习的内容和个体的需求,适时、适度、适量地运用。