By Colleen Gillard
If Harry Potter and Huckleberry Finn were each to represent British versus American childrens literature, a curious dynamic would emerge: In a literary duel for the hearts and minds of children, one is a wizard-in-training at a boarding school in the Scottish Highlands, while the other is a barefoot boy drifting down the Mississippi, beset by con artists,1 slave hunters, and thieves. One defeats evil with a wand, the other takes to a raft to right a social wrong. Both orphans took over the world of English-language childrens literature, but their stories unfold in noticeably different ways.
The small island of Great Britain is an undisputed powerhouse of childrens bestsellers: The Wind in the Willows, Alice in Wonderland, Winnie-the-Pooh, Peter Pan, The Hobbit, James and the Giant Peach, Harry Potter, and The Lion, the Witch, and the Wardrobe.2 Significantly, all are fantasies. Meanwhile, the United States, also a major player in the field of childrens classics, deals much less in magic. Stories like Little House in the Big Woods, The Call of the Wild, Charlottes Web, The Yearling, Little Women, and The Adventures of Tom Sawyer are more notable for their realistic portraits of day-to-day life in the towns and farmlands on the growing frontier.3 If British children gathered in the glow of the kitchen hearth to hear stories about magic swords and talking bears, American children sat at their mothers knee listening to tales larded with moral messages about a world where life was hard, obedience emphasized, and Christian morality valued. Each style has its virtues, but the British approach undoubtedly yields the kinds of stories that appeal to the furthest reaches of childrens imagination.
It all goes back to each countrys distinct cultural heritage. For one, the British have always been in touch with their pagan4 folklore, says Maria Tatar, a Harvard professor of childrens literature and folklore. After all, the countrys very origin story is about a young king tutored by a wizard. Legends have always been embraced as history, from Merlin to Macbeth. “Even as Brits were digging into these enchanted worlds, Americans, much more pragmatic, always viewed their soil as something to exploit,” says Tatar. Americans are defined by a Protestant work ethic that can still be heard in stories like Pollyanna or The Little Engine That Could.
Americans write fantasies too, but nothing like the British, says Jerry Griswold, a San Diego State University emeritus professor of childrens literature. “American stories are rooted in realism; even our fantasies are rooted in realism,” he said, pointing to Dorothy who unmasks the great and powerful Wizard of Oz as a charlatan5.
American fantasies differ in another way: They usually end with a moral lesson learned—such as, surprisingly, in the zany works by Dr. Seuss who has Horton the elephant intoning:6 “A persons a person no matter how small,”and, “I meant what I said, and I said what I meant. An elephants faithful one hundred percent.” Even The Cat in the Hat restores order from chaos just before mother gets home. In Oz, Dorothys Technicolor quest ends with the realization: “Theres no place like home.” And Max in Where the Wild Things Are atones for the “wild rumpus”of his temper tantrum by calming down and sailing home.7
Landscape matters: Britains antique countryside, strewn with moldering8 castles and cozy farms, lends itself to fairy-tale invention. As Tatar puts it, the British are tuned in to the charm of their pastoral fields: “Think about Beatrix Potter talking to bunnies in the hedgerows, or A. A. Milnes Winnie-the-Pooh wandering the Hundred Acre Wood.”9 Not for nothing, J. K. Rowling set Harry Potters Hogwarts School of Witchcraft and Wizardry in the spooky wilds of the Scottish Highlands. Lewis Carroll drew on the ancient stonewalled gardens, sleepy rivers, and hidden hallways of Oxford University to breathe life into the whimsical prose of Alice in Wonderland.10
Americas mighty vistas, by contrast, are less cozy, less human-scaled, and less haunted. The characters that populate its purple mountain majesties and fruited plains are decidedly real: Theres the burro Brighty of the Grand Canyon, the Boston cop who stops traffic in Make Way for Ducklings, and the mail-order bride in Sarah, Plain and Tall who brings love to lonely children on a Midwestern farm. No dragons, wands, or Mary Poppins umbrellas here.
Britains pagan religions and the stories that form their liturgy11 never really disappeared, the literature professor Meg Bateman said in an interview on the Isle of Skye in the Scottish Highlands. Pagan Britain, Scotland in particular, survived the march of Christianity far longer than the rest of Europe. Monotheism had a harder time making inroads into Great Britain despite how quickly it swept away the continents nature religions, says Bateman. Isolated behind Hadrians Wall—built by the Romans to stem raids by the Northern barbarian hordes—Scotland endured as a place where pagan beliefs persisted; beliefs brewed from the religious cauldron12 of folklore donated by successive invasions of Picts, Celts, Romans, Anglo-Saxons, and Vikings.
Even well into the 19th and even 20th centuries, many believed they could be whisked away to a parallel universe. Shape shifters have long haunted the castles of clans claiming seals and bears as ancestors. “Gaelic culture teaches we neednt fear the dark side,” Bateman says. Death is neither “a portal to heaven nor hell, but instead a continued life on earth where spirits are released to shadow the living.” A tear in this fabric is all it takes for a story to begin. Think Harry Potter, The Chronicles of Narnia, The Dark Is Rising, Peter Pan, The Golden Compass—all of which feature parallel worlds.
These were beliefs the Puritans firmly rejected as they fled Great Britain and religious persecution for the New Worlds rocky shores. America is peculiar in its lack of indigenous folklore, Harvards Tatar says. Though African slaves brought folktales to Southern plantations, and Native Americans had a long tradition of mythology, little remains today of these rich worlds other than in small collections of Native American stories or the devalued vernacular of Uncle Remus, Uncle Tom, and the slave Jim in Huckleberry Finn.
Popular storytelling in the New World instead tended to celebrate in words and song the largerthan-life exploits of ordinary men and women: Daniel Boone, Davy Crockett, Calamity Jane, even a mule named Sal on the Erie Canal.13 Out of bragging contests in logging and mining camps came even greater exaggerations—Tall Tales—about the giant lumberjack Paul Bunyan, the twister-riding cowboy Pecos Bill, and that steel-driving man John Henry, who, born a slave, died with a hammer in his hand. All of these characters embodied the American promise: They earned their fame.
British children may read about royal destiny discovered when a young King Arthur pulls a sword from a stone. But immigrants to America who came to escape such unearned birthrights are much more interested in challenges to aristocracy, says Griswold. He points to Mark Twains The Prince and the Pauper, which reveals the two boys to be interchangeable: “We question castles here.”
如果哈利·波特和哈克貝利·费恩分别代表了英国和美国的儿童文学,一种令人玩味的动态情况就出现了:在一场赢得儿童心灵与思想的文学对决中,一个是在苏格兰高地一所寄宿学校里学习的巫师,而另一个则是顺着密西西比河漂流而下,被骗子、奴隶贩子和盗贼侵扰的赤脚男孩。一个用魔杖战胜邪恶,另一个则乘着木筏纠正社会问题。两个孤儿都征服了英语儿童文学的世界,但他们的故事却是以截然不同的方式展现的。
大不列颠这座小岛毫无疑问是儿童畅销书的一大来源地,如《柳林风声》、《爱丽丝漫游奇境记》、《小熊维尼》、《彼得·潘》、《霍比特人》、《詹姆斯与大仙桃》、《哈利·波特》和《狮子、女巫与魔衣橱》。重要的是,所有这些都是幻想类作品。相比之下,在同样作为儿童文学经典主要来源地的美国,涉及魔幻题材的作品则少得多。像《大森林里的小木屋》、《野性的呼唤》、《夏洛的网》、《鹿苑长春》、《小妇人》和《汤姆·索亚历险记》之类的作品因其对拓荒边界上的城镇与农田的日常生活的写实描述而更为人所知。如果说英国的孩子是聚在厨房壁炉前的光亮中听魔剑和会说话的熊的故事,那么美国的孩子则是坐在母亲的膝旁,听充斥着道德信息的故事,故事中的世界生活艰苦,强调服从,推崇基督教的道德。两种风格各有优点,但英国的风格无疑创造出了能够满足孩子无边想象力的作品。
这一切都可以追溯到两国独特的文化遗产。比如说,哈佛大学儿童文学与民俗学教授玛丽亚·塔塔尔认为,英国人一直与他们的异教民俗保持着千丝万缕的联系。毕竟,英国的起源故事就是关于一位由巫师指导的年轻国王。从梅林到麦克白,传说一直被视为历史。塔塔尔说:“在英国人挖掘这些魔法世界的同时,更为务实的美国人则总是将自己的乡土视为可以开采的东西。”美国人为新教徒的工作道德所定义,这种道德在诸如《波丽安娜》或《小火车头做到了》等故事中仍然可以读到。
圣地亚哥州立大学儿童文学荣誉教授杰里·格里斯沃尔德认为,美国人也写幻想作品,但和英国人的不一样。“美国的故事植根于现实主义;甚至连我们的幻想都植根于现实主义。”他说道,并举了《绿野仙踪》的例子,故事中的多萝西发现法力无边的魔法师其实只是个骗子。
美国的幻想作品有所不同:它们通常以道德上的教训作为结尾。比如,令人惊讶的是,在苏斯博士的那些古怪可笑的作品中,大象霍顿庄重地表示:“人无论多么渺小也都是人。”以及“我想说的就是我所说的,我所说的就是我想说的。大象是百分百忠实的。”甚至在妈妈回家之前,《戴帽子的猫》也从混乱中恢复了秩序。在特艺彩色制片的《绿野仙踪》中,多萝西在旅程结束之际意识到:“没有一个地方可以和家相提并论。”《野兽家园》中马克斯为自己大发脾气和“野兽闹腾”感到后悔,最终平静下来并返航回家。
风景很重要:英国古老的乡村布满了残破的城堡和怡人的农场,对于童话创作而言再合适不过了。正如塔塔尔所说,英国人陶醉于他们田园风光的魅力:“想想比阿特丽克斯·波特同树篱边的兔子说话,又或者A. A. 米尔恩的小熊维尼在百亩森林中游荡。”J. K. 罗琳将《哈利·波特》中的霍格沃茨魔法学校设定在苏格兰高地的阴森荒野不是没有原因的。刘易斯·卡罗尔从牛津大学那古老的被石墙所环绕的花园、冷清寂寥的河流和隐蔽神秘的走廊中汲取灵感,为《爱丽丝漫游奇境记》中异想天开的文字注入了生命。
相比之下,美国广袤的风景没有那么怡人,没怎么经过人的改造,也鲜有闹鬼的迹象。那些居住在壮丽的紫色山峦和结满果实的平原的人物绝对是真实的:《大峡谷的布莱迪》中的小驴,《让路给小鸭子》中拦下车流的波士顿警察,《又丑又高的莎拉》里通过征婚广告来到家里的新娘,她给一座中西部农场里孤独的孩子们带来了爱。这里没有龙,没有魔杖,也没有魔法保姆玛丽·波平斯的雨伞。
文学教授梅格·贝特曼在苏格兰高地的斯凯岛接受采访时说,英国的异教和构成他们礼拜仪式的故事从未真正消失过。异教的英国,尤其是苏格兰地区,在基督教的征服中留存下来的时间比欧洲其他地方更长。贝特曼说,尽管一神论很快扫荡了欧洲大陆的自然宗教,但是却没有那么容易进入到大不列颠。苏格兰被哈德良长城(由罗马人建造,以阻止北方蛮族的袭击)所隔开,从而一直是异教信仰持续存在的地方。这些信仰杂糅、发酵自先后入侵的皮克特人、凯尔特人、罗马人、盎格鲁-撒克逊人和维京人的宗教民俗。
甚至到了19世纪乃至20世纪,许多人都还相信自己可以被带到一个平行宇宙中去。变形者长期以来一直盘踞在将海豹和熊认作祖先的氏族的城堡中。贝特曼说:“盖尔文化教会我们不必害怕黑暗。”死亡不是“通向天堂或地狱的大门,而是在人世间延续的一种生命,灵魂被释放以笼罩生者。”要开启一个故事,发现平行世界的一个入口就足够了。想想《哈利·波特》、《纳尼亚传奇》、《黑暗崛起》、《彼得·潘》和《黄金罗盘》,所有这些作品都是写平行世界的。
而这些信仰是清教徒们坚决不予接受的。他们从大不列颠和宗教迫害中逃出,来到了新大陆岩石遍布的海岸。哈佛大学教授塔塔尔说,美国特别缺乏本土民俗。尽管非洲奴隶将民间故事带到了南部种植园,而且原住民有着悠久的神话传统,但如今除了有少数留存在原住民的故事里,或是遗留在雷穆斯叔叔、汤姆叔叔和《哈克贝利·费恩历险记》中黑奴吉姆的不被看重的方言里之外,几乎没有什么关于这些丰富世界的记录留下。
新世界的流行叙事倾向于用言语和歌曲来赞颂普通男女的丰功伟绩:丹尼尔·布恩、戴维·克罗克特、野姑娘杰恩,甚至是伊利运河上一头名为萨尔的骡子。由于人们常在伐木和采矿营地举行吹牛比赛,更加夸张的故事诞生了——即荒诞故事——比如伐木巨人保罗·班扬,驾驭龙卷风的传奇牛仔佩科斯·比尔和与机器比赛的钢钻工约翰·亨利(他生在一个奴隶家庭,死时手中还握着锤子)。所有这些人物都体现了美国的希望:他们为自己赢得了名声。
而英国儿童读到的可能都是关于皇室命运的故事,比如年轻的亚瑟王从石头中拔出宝剑。但是为了逃避这种与生俱来的权利而来到美国的移民则对挑战贵族制更加感兴趣,格里斯沃尔德如是说。他指出,马克·吐温的《王子与乞丐》就揭示出两个男孩是可以互换身份的:“我们这里是质疑王权的。”
1. duel: 决斗;beset: 困扰,使苦恼;con artist: 骗子。
2. The Wind in the Willows:《柳林风声》,是英国作家肯尼斯·格雷厄姆创作的童话,发表于1908年,主人公是身穿人类服装并且能说会道的鼹鼠、河鼠、狗獾、蛤蟆和水獭;James and the Giant Peach:《詹姆斯与大仙桃》,出版于2009年,是罗尔德·达尔第一部儿童文学成名作;The Lion, the Witch, and the Wardrobe : 《狮子、女巫与魔衣橱》,是《纳尼亚传奇》系列的第二部,作者是英国作家C. S. 刘易斯。
3. The Call of the Wild : 《野性的呼唤》,是美国作家杰克·倫敦创作的一部动物小说,通过一只文明世界的狗在主人的逼迫下走向荒野的经历,反映了“优胜劣汰,适者生存”的现实主题;The Yearling:《鹿苑长春》,是美国作家罗琳斯创作的长篇小说,通过小主人公裘弟和小鹿的故事,描写了美国南北战争后佛罗里达州垦荒区普通人的劳动和斗争;Little Women:《小妇人》,由美国女作家奥尔科特创作,以四姐妹的生活琐事为蓝本,是一本强调女权意识的半自传体小说。
4. pagan: 非基督教的。
5. charlatan: 骗子,冒充内行的人。
6. zany: 古怪的,滑稽可笑的;Dr. Seuss: 苏斯博士(1904—1991),创作了许多教育绘本,是20世纪最卓越的儿童文学家、教育学家之一,戴帽子的猫、大象霍顿和鬼精灵(绿毛怪格林奇)等都是他笔下的经典形象。
7. atone: 弥补,补偿;rumpus: 喧闹,骚乱;temper tantrum: 大发脾气。
8. molder: 腐朽。
9. Beatrix Potter: 比阿特丽克斯·波特(1866—1943),英国童话作家,彼得兔、汤姆小猫等都是她笔下的著名童话形象;A. A. Milne: 艾伦·亚历山大·米尔恩(1882— 1956),英国著名剧作家、小说家、童话作家。
10. Lewis Carroll: 刘易斯·卡罗尔(1832—1898),英国数学家、逻辑学家、童话作家,代表作有《爱丽丝漫游奇境记》《爱丽丝镜中奇遇记》;whimsical: 怪异的。
11. liturgy: 礼拜仪式。
12. cauldron: 大锅。
13. Daniel Boone: 丹尼尔·布恩(1734—1840),美国肯塔基州垦荒先驱;Davy Crockett: 戴维·克罗克特(1786—1836),美国政治家和战斗英雄,在得克萨斯独立运动的阿拉莫战役中牺牲;Calamity Jane: 野姑娘杰恩,是一个喜爱惩奸除恶的牛仔女,出自1953年的一部同名电影;Sal: 骡子萨尔,出自一首名为《伊利运河》(The Erie Canal)的歌。伊利运河历时八年建造,是美国的第一条国家水道。运河上的驳船在运载物资时,骡和马会在岸上用绳索拉着驳船在运河中前行。