杨鲁新
摘 要:很多外语教师在阅读教学中有重局部、轻整体的现象。要解决该问题,教师需要认识到阅读教学的核心是阅读理解。另外,教师需要了解母语阅读与外语阅读的相似与不同之处及不同文体的写作特点,这样才能思考如何帮助学生正向迁移其母语的阅读能力,教师也才能从比较宏观的层面思考学生在阅读过程中可能遇到的挑战,从而给予相应的指导。
关键词:阅读教学;阅读能力;语言迁移;文体特点
阅读教学是外语教学的重中之重。日常教学活动中的很多内容都是围绕阅读教学开展的,包括词汇讲解、语法练习、造句、读后写作等活动。但是,外语教师在阅读教学中重局部、轻整体的现象比较普遍。换言之,在讲授阅读篇目时,教师花很多时间讲解单词、词组、语法、句子结构等,教学呈现“碎片化”状态,却较少涉及文本内嵌的深层含义,文本的写作特点和修辞风格,缺乏“整”的格局。阅读教学变相成为语法、词汇教学,导致很多学生对外语阅读失去兴趣,进而影响其在外语学习方面的投入。没有大量的阅读作为基础,学生的外语水平也很难有实质性的提高。
要解决阅读教学中的“碎”与“整”的问题,教师首先要理解阅读教学的核心是帮助学生实现阅读理解。阅读理解是一个复杂、多层面的过程,会随着学生的阅读经验、生活阅历而发生变化。尽管阅读的目的不同(如愉悦身心、获取信息和学习新知),阅读任务的主要目标却都是从文本中获取有意义或有价值的内容。事实上,阅读理解是多种技能的交相组合,包括单词层面的阅读技能、文本层面的阅读技能、提取意义的策略(如辨识主旨大意和支撑信息)和认知技能(如记忆、词汇知识和语言理解)等。另外,个人的成长经历、家庭、外语学习环境也会影响其阅读理解。上图概括了影响一个人二/外语阅读能力的多重因素。阅读理解涉及的因素很多,包括读者对单词意义的熟悉程度,单词在句子中的作用, 某些单词如何用于连接意义以及单词在句子中的位置如何改变其意义等。影响阅读理解的其他基本技能包括将字母与发音匹配、根据上下文猜出生词的意义和把词群分成几个更小的单位。不管读者的阅读目的是愉悦身心、获取信息还是学习新知,好的记忆力、对文本主题的熟悉度以及良好的阅读策略都有助于其对文本的阅读理解。当然,学生需要有兴趣、有动力且能获得高质量的学习指导,他们才会在阅读方面大量投入。
第二,教师需要了解母语阅读和二/外语阅读的相似与不同之处。母语阅读与二/外语阅读有很多相似之处。母语和二/外语读者需要用相同的技能去理解阅读内容,但是母语学习者在学习阅读前就习得了听说技能(Chall,1996),而二/外语学习者需要同时学习听、说、读技能(Geva,2000)。虽然二/外语学习者要经历母语学习者类似的阅读能力发展过程,但是二/外语学习者在起步阶段就比母语学习者缺乏有关目的语的词汇、语法积累及听力理解能力(Farnia & Geva,2011),且语言学习的强度、密集度以及接受的教学方法也因人而异。另外,在外语学习环境下,学习者在课外接触外语的机会是很有限的。这些因素都会影响学习者二/外语阅读能力的发展。不论开展母语还是二/外语阅读教学,教师都需要做到以下几个方面(Geva & Ramírez,2016):
关注学生准确认读单词的能力发展。
提升学生认读单词和文本的流利度。
显性教授学术语言或复杂的书面语。
让学生阅读符合年龄特点的材料。
培养学生学习和运用读写活动需要的认知和元认知策略。
考虑文本类型(如叙事文、说明文、多媒体文本等)。
考虑文本结构(如描写性、顺序性、比较与对比、因果、问题与解决等)。
将阅读内容与学生的背景知识相联系。
激励学生大量阅读。
理解大量阅读训练的重要性和必要性。
从学生阅读能力的发展角度思考問题。
在教学中考虑学生的个体差异(如阅读能力、认知水平、学习机会等)。
二/外语阅读教学与母语阅读教学也存在一些不同之处。在进行二/外语阅读教学时,二/外语教师需要做到以下几个方面(Geva & Ramírez,2016):
考虑母语的书面语和口语对二/外语学习的正迁移和负迁移影响。
考虑二/外语学习者在阅读过程中可能存在的背景知识空缺。
意识到有些能力(如语音意识)是可以自动迁移的,有些能力(如构词法、语法、写作修辞等)是需要显性指导的。
考虑二/外语学习者的特点,如他们是否同时学习语言(语法、词汇等)和培养阅读能力。
考虑到二/外语学习者在阅读时可能遇到的挑战(如文学文本、语用语言、背景知识缺乏等)。
明白教学过程中及时发现问题并及时干预的重要性,但要很清楚学生的阅读和语言问题不会轻易消失。
关于母语与二/外语的关系,我们有必要提到Cummins(1981)提出的语言相互关联假说(the linguistic interdependence hypothesis)。该假说指出语言能力是可以相互迁移的。学生的母语能力可以辅助其二/外语的学习,但是母语能力(如读写能力)的正向迁移取决于母语的教学质量与学生的二/外语水平,特别是词汇与语法水平。只有当学生具有一定水平的二/外语语言能力时,其在母语阅读中培养的知识与能力(如背景知识、阅读策略、写作技巧等)才能迁移到二/外语阅读中。
试想一名中国学生阅读下面的短文:
The Ice Returns… The Hunt Begins
October in the Arctic brings limited hours of daylight and plunging temperatures. The ice fields start to reform quickly and as soon as they are solid enough, hunters, like the polar bears, set out after the seals. Nets are set under the ice. Experienced hunters know which locations have been best in the past, and a well-placed net may catch several seals a week. With no shortage of refrigeration, the seals can provide a supply of meat for the long winter months.
As winter sets in, the ice pack becomes too thick to be able to set seal nets, and its much harder to find the seals breathing holes. Hunters often have to set out on expeditions that can last over a month. Now the seals have to be stalked. To do this, Inuit hunters use a “blind”—a screen of white cloth mounted to a slide on the ice. The rifle muzzle sticks through a hole and the hunter crawls along the ice pushing the screen ahead of him.
It is important to avoid firing before the seal can be killed in the first shot. Otherwise the wounded animal may escape through its breathing hole in the ice—not a good situation for the seal or the hunter.(Geva & Ramírez,2016)
该生在阅读理解该短文时,需要具备与中文阅读相似或相同的阅读能力及与英语相关的阅读能力。首先,他需要能够准确、流利地认读每一个单词,这样才能激活其已有的背景知识、认知能力,辅助其理解该短文。这些背景知识、认知能力可能是其在中文阅读能力发展过程中形成的。认读每一个单词需要不同的策略。例如,把字母与发音相联系,从而能准确、流利地认读符合拼写规律的生词,如sticks和thick。该生也需要能够准确、流利地认读不规则拼写的高频词,如was,the和through。如果他不清楚单词daylight的意思,或许可以通过该单词的构成day+light猜出其意思。如果生词太多,他就会觉得很难理解此短文。该生至少需要认读段落中95%的单词才能比较容易地理解该段落。当然,掌握因纽特文化及加拿大北极地区冬天的一些背景知识将有助于该生理解此短文。更重要的是,他需要辨识出段落中不同信息是如何连接的。例如,该生需要知道单词otherwise表明句子“the wounded animal may escape through its breathing hole in the ice...”与前面的句子相连。另外,他也需要应用有效的阅读策略,如想象出阅读的内容,找出段落的主旨和支撑细节。如果该生阅读中文时经常运用这些策略,他会很自然地把这些策略运用到其英文阅读中。
第三,教师需要了解不同文体的写作特点,这样在阅读教学中才能做到不仅关注“碎片化”的知识点,还能够从更为宏观的层面思考学生在阅读过程中可能遇到的挑战,从而给予相应的指导。
例如,叙事文与说明文是中小学英语阅读中常见的文体,但是叙事文与说明文在行文结构与语言使用上有很大区别。学生通常很熟悉叙事文,因为小时候听过很多故事。通过这种反复的接触,学龄儿童实际上已经习得了故事的一般结构,包括场景、人物、主题、情节、冲突和结局。在学校遇到阅读故事的任务时,学生很自然地对故事的这些要素形成期待,而且能够辨识这些要素,运用这些要素去理解和记忆故事,并能表达自己对故事的看法。教师可以让学生在阅读英语故事时,有意识地激活学生在读中文故事时已经形成的对故事要素的理解,培养学生形成有关英语故事结构的意识,这些都有助于学生阅读理解英语故事。例如,教师可以通过朗读故事、表演故事以及讨论故事情节等活动,帮助学生阅读理解英文故事、增长知识、学习语言等。到了中学阶段,学生接触的英语叙事文变得更加复杂,如作者可能会采用倒叙手法,语言行文上可能会使用多种修辞手法,如明喻、讽喻、夸张、类比和拟人,并使用暗语、双关语等。这些修辞手法让文本优美,但却给语言学习者带来挑战,造成理解上的困难,于是需要教师在阅读教学中重点关注。例如:
The bull-man wheeled toward him, pawed the ground again, and got ready to charge. I thought about how he had squeezed the life out of my mother, made her disappear in a flash of light, and rage filled me like high-octane fuel. (Riordan, 2005)
我们可以想象出学生在理解“he had squeezed the life out of my mother, made her disappear in a flash of light”时会遇到困难,因此学生需要超越文本表面意思,去理解作者使用修辞性语言所想表达的意义。
说明文属于非文学类文体,信息性更强,会给学生的理解带来不同于叙事文的挑战。例如,英语说明文的整体结构可以分为五类:描写性结构(descriptive structure)、顺序性结构(sequential structure)、比较与對比(compare and contrast)、因果(cause and effect)和问题与解决(problem and solution)。教师在阅读教学中教会学生理解这些文章结构有利于学生理解文本。例如,描写性结构通常介绍一个主题,然后列举其特征、特点等(如案例1)。顺序性结构常常会使用一些连接词,例如“first”“second”“ then”“next”“finally” 来表示事件或步骤顺序(如案例2)。比较与对比结构用于比较两个或两个以上事物或事件的相似和不同之处,常用的代表性词汇包括“but”“by contrast”“in comparison”“on the other hand”“similar to”“likewise”等(如案例3)。因果结构用于呈现一个或多个原因及其导致的结果,常用的代表性词汇有“so”“because”“therefore”“as a result”“consequently”“this results in”等(如案例4)。问题与解决结构先说明问题,然后列举一个或多个解决问题的方法,常用的代表性词汇有“problem is…”“dilemma is…”“puzzle is solved…”等(如案例5)。这些语言使用方式都揭示了段落的行文结构,及段落所呈现信息之间的内在关联。掌握文本结构和语言使用特点将有助于学生理解文本,迅速获取文本的主旨。案例1. 描写性结构(descriptive structure)
The Olympic symbol consists of five interlocking rings. The rings represent the five continents—Africa, Asia, Europe, America, and Oceania—from which athletes come to compete in the games. The rings are colored black, blue, green, red, and yellow. At least, one of the colors is found in the flag of every country sending athletes to compete in the Olympic Games.案例2. 顺序性结构(sequential structure)
The Ancient Olympic Games began as athletic festivals to honor the Greek gods. The most important festival was held in the valley of Olympia to honor Zeus, the king of the gods. It was this festival that became the Ancient Olympic Games in 776 B.C. These games were ended in 394 A.D. by the Roman Emperor who ruled Greece. No Olympic Games were held for more than 1500 years. Then the modern Olympics began in 1896. Almost 300 male athletes competed in the first modern Olympics. In the games held in 1900, female athletes were allowed to compete. The games have continued every four years since 1896 except during World War II, and they will most likely continue for many years to come.
案例3. 比較与对比(compare and contrast)
The modern Olympics are very unlike the ancient Olympic Games. Individual events are different. While there were no swimming races in the ancient games, for example, there were chariot races. There were no female contestants and all athletes competed in the nude. Of course, the ancient and modern Olympics are also alike in many ways. Some events, such as the javelin and discus throws, are the same. Some people say that cheating, professionalism, and nationalism in the modern games are a disgrace to the Olympic tradition. But according to the ancient Greek writers, there were many cases of cheating, nationalism, and professionalism in their Olympics, too.
案例4. 因果(cause and effect)
There are several reasons why so many people attend the Olympic Games or watch them on television. One reason is tradition. The name Olympics and the torch and flame remind people of the ancient games. People can escape the ordinariness of daily life by attending or watching the Olympics. They like to identify with someone elses individual sacrifice and accomplishment. National pride is another reason, and an athletes or a teams hard-earned victory becomes a nations victory. There are national medal counts and people keep track of how many medals their countrys athletes have won.
案例5. 问题与解决(problem and solution)
One problem with the modern Olympics is that the games have become very big and expensive to operate. The city or country that hosts the games often loses a lot of money. A stadium, pools, and playing fields must be built for the athletic events and housing is needed for the athletes who come from around the world. And all of these facilities are used for only 2 weeks! In 1984, Los Angeles solved these problems by charging a fee for companies who wanted to be official sponsors of the games. Companies like McDonalds paid a lot of money to be part of the Olympics. Many buildings that were already built in the Los Angeles area were also used. The Coliseum where the 1932 games were held was used again and many colleges and universities in the area became playing and living sites.
阅读说明文可能遇到的困难还包括文本语言结构的复杂性、信息的密集度、生僻的学术词汇和专业词汇等。试想学生阅读下面短文可能会遇到的困难。
The Middle East Today
You have undoubtedly heard about conflicts in the Middle East on television or in the newspaper. If you have family members living in the region, you may have heard some news first-hand. Sometimes it is hard for people living far away from a conflict to appreciate why it started— or why it is difficult to resolve. Conflict in the Middle East partly concerns achieving peace for two groups of people—the Israelis and the Palestinians. Both groups say they want peace, but both groups also say they have a right to occupy the same territory.
Many problems can be traced back to the time when the State of Israel was created in 1948. For over 50 years before that time, many Jews had been fleeing terrible persecution in Europe by moving to Palestine, the Jewish homeland in biblical times. They believed they were entitled to return to territory they had inherited from their ancestors. During World War II, millions of Jews were murdered by the Nazi followers of Adolf Hitler. After the war, hundreds of thousands of surviving Jews came to Palestine as refugees, hoping to create their own state. The Arab majority, who had lived there for generations, did not welcome their arrival, and warfare erupted. Hundreds of thousands of Palestinian Arabs were displaced from their homes and became refugees. As a result, there has been conflict between the two groups ever since. Despite many attempts to reach a lasting peace agreement, tensions in the area remain high. (Cranny, 2012)
仔細阅读后我们会发现该片段使用了一些比较复杂的语言结构,如:
(1)完成时:“You have undoubtedly heard about conflicts in the Middle East on television or in the newspaper.”
(2)条件从句引导的句子:“If you have family members living in the region, you may have heard some news firsthand.”
(3)状语短语引导的句子:“During World War II, millions of Jews...”
(4)被动语态:“... millions of Jews were murdered by the Nazi followers of Adolf Hitler.”
(5)含有关系从句的句子:“The Arab majority, who had lived there for generations, did not welcome their arrival...”
(6)关系代词引导的从句(如“that”“which”“who”):“The Arab majority, who had lived there for generations…”
(7)学术词汇:“conflict”“refugees”“territory”“surviving”“undoubtedly”“displaced”
这些语言结构和学术词汇都是说明文特有的特点。阅读此类说明文,学生不仅要认读单词、理解句子结构,而且需要相关背景知识,熟悉写作手法及学术(或书面)语言使用的特点。
总之,面对任何文体的阅读文本,教师都需要分析该文本的文体特点,思考学生在阅读理解过程中可能遇到的语言难点和深层次理解的难点。基于研究发现(如August & Shanahan,2006;Baker et al,2014),对于语言难点,特别是如何选择需要直接教授的词汇,笔者建议选择:(1)在其他文本和阅读话题中也会经常出现的词汇;(2)对理解文本主旨有关键影响的词汇;(3)学生很难独立学习的词汇;(4)构词复杂的词汇。教师要始终明确阅读教学的核心目的是帮助学生理解文本,培养其独立的阅读能力。词汇、语法的教学是为了扫清学生阅读理解的障碍,不应成为阅读教学的终极目标。词汇、语法的教学应放在文本的语境中,引导学生思考作者使用该词汇或语法所想要表达的意义及作者是否达到了其表达目的。只有这样做,词汇、语法的学习才不会枯燥。在引导学生进行各种阅读活动时,需要认识到学生不仅学习阅读二/外语,而且通过二/外语阅读学习文化知识,训练高层次语言技能和认知能力(如学术词汇、构词意识、句型意识、修辞性语言、推理能力和综合能力)。因此,在阅读教学中,教师应关注学生理解能力的发展。具体到某个文本的阅读,教师应关注学生是否能够做到:(1)辨识文本主旨,区分主旨与支撑内容;(2)提炼段落大意;(3)辨识和理解显性和隐性表达的信息;(4)基于已有信息进行推理;(5)将已知与阅读材料建立有意义的联系。
第四,教師要了解阅读文本选择的标准,即选择的阅读文本应是内容有意义,符合学生的认知年龄和阅读水平。阅读水平可分为独立性阅读、指导性阅读和沮丧性阅读;与其相对应的阅读文本则可分为独立性阅读文本、指导性阅读文本和沮丧性阅读文本(Geva & Ramírez,2016)。读者可以流利阅读且不需要他人帮助的阅读文本属于独立性阅读文本,即学生能够准确阅读90%的内容,能够认读至少95%的单词。这样的阅读文本特别适合作为学生的课外阅读材料。学生在他人(如教师)帮助下能够准确阅读理解90%内容的阅读文本属于指导性阅读文本。这类阅读文本适合用于课堂教学,教师在学生阅读过程中提供相应的指导,如指导学生认读单词和理解句子或段落。有时候,教师需要在阅读前或阅读中给学生讲解一些影响理解的词汇和句子。教师指导的目的是帮助学生提升对词汇、语法的理解及发展阅读技能。如果学生只能认读低于75%的词汇,此类阅读文本属于沮丧性阅读文本,难度太大,容易导致学生丧失外语阅读的信心。因此,教学中应尽量避免采用沮丧性阅读文本。如果教学中必须教授沮丧性阅读文本,教师应想办法在阅读之前处理生词,然后再开展阅读活动。
第五,教师需要了解二/外语阅读困难产生的原因。学生的阅读困难有可能是因为学生缺乏阅读策略,也有可能是因为学生缺乏解码能力(即认读单词)、阅读流利性不足、词汇知识不丰富、以及缺乏对语法和句法的理解等。
前面谈到阅读理解需要多种技能的互动与协调。这些技能包括低层次阅读技能(如字母辨认,字母与发音的匹配,准确而迅速地认读单词,理解单词的语义,猜出生词可能的语义,理解单词的语音、构词、拼写等)和高层次阅读技能(如运用语法理解文本的语义,获得整体理解,运用阅读理解调控策略,汲取背景知识进行推理,概括文本的主旨,审评阅读内容等)。低层次的阅读技能有助于学生进行高层次的阅读理解;而高层次的阅读技能有助于学生准确解码生词,猜出生词的语义。只有了解学生在阅读理解过程中产生困难的原因,教师才可以有针对性地开展阅读教学活动,真正从培养学生的阅读能力出发,而非单一地专注于词汇语法的教学或者宏观的篇章结构分析。
当然,二/外语教师需要认识到学生在二/外语阅读中遇到的困难与其正在发展的二/外语水平密切相关。低层次阅读技能的培养和扎实的语言功底(如发音、拼写、词汇、语法等知识与能力)是实现阅读理解的基础。除了关注学生语言基本功的培养,教师在日常教学中还应关注培养学生的阅读策略、元认知调控能力,鼓励学生大量阅读,不断扩大知识面。
总之,对阅读教学的理解是解决阅读教学中的“碎”与“整”的问题的关键。教师需要认识到阅读教学的核心是阅读理解。对母语与二/外语阅读的相似与不同之处的理解将有助于教师思考如何帮助学生正向迁移母语的阅读能力及发现学生在二/外语阅读中可能存在的困难。同时,只有了解不同文体的写作特点,教师才可能从更为宏观的层面思考学生在阅读过程中可能遇到的挑战,从而给予相应的指导。学生一旦掌握了最基本的阅读技能,阅读就成为他们学习新词汇和文化知识的主要媒介。因此,教师要充分发挥阅读在二/外语学习过程中的作用,给学生提供高质量的二/外语阅读指导,培养学生的阅读兴趣和独立阅读能力。
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