肝移植术后早期急性肾功能损伤的研究现状

2018-03-20 01:26孟繁秀徐钧
中国现代医生 2018年1期
关键词:急性肾损伤危险因素并发症

孟繁秀 徐钧

[摘要] 肝移植术后急性肾功能损伤(acute kidney injury,AKI)是术后常见并发症之一,与术后死亡率的增加及术后慢性肾功能衰竭的发生密切相关。长期以来我们对肝移植术后AKI的认识始终模糊不清,主要是因为尚无被广泛接受的定义,而针对终末期肝病的患者,一些常用于评价肾脏功能的指标均有其局限性,这使得对术后AKI的早期发现、早期处理变得很困难。根据国内外许多中心的研究,导致肝移植术后AKI的因素是复杂的、多方面的。如何有效地预防、及时正确地诊断和处理此严重并发症已成为肝移植界的重要挑战。

[关键词] 肝移植术;急性肾损伤;并发症;危险因素

[中图分类号] R657.3 [文献标识码] A [文章编号] 1673-9701(2018)01-0159-06

Research status of early acute renal injury after liver transplantation

MENG Fanxiu1 XU Jun2

1.Graduate School, Shanxi Medical University, Taiyuan 030001, China; 2.Department of General Surgery, Shanxi Tumor Hospital, Taiyuan 030013, China

[Abstract] Acute kidney injury(AKI) after liver transplantation is one of the common complications after operation. It is closely related to the increase of postoperative mortality and the occurrence of postoperative chronic renal failure. For a long time our understanding of AKI after liver transplantation has always been vague, and this is mainly because there is no widely accepted definition. For patients with end-stage liver disease, some of the indicators commonly used to evaluate renal function have their limitations. This makes the early detection and early treatment of postoperative AKI become very difficult. According to the studies at many centers at home and abroad, the factors that lead to AKI after liver transplantation are complicated and multifaceted. How to effectively prevent and diagnose this serious complication in time and correctly has become an important challenge in the field of liver transplantation.

[Key words] Liver transplantation; Acute renal injury; Complications; Risk factors

因手术技术、器官保存技术的不断改进,围术期管理水平的提高,肝移植患者术后总体1年生存率可达86%,术后5年生存率提高到70%[1],但术后各种急、慢性并发症仍是影响长期预后的主要因素。其中,肝移植术后急性肾功能损伤(acute kidney injury,AKI)是术后常见并发症之一,因诊断标准的不同,各中心报道的发病率在17%~95%[2,3],肝移植术后AKI与死亡率的增加[4,5]与术后慢性肾功能衰竭[6]的发生密切相关。有文献报道,肝移植术后未并发AKI的患者28 d和1年死亡率分别是0%和3.9%,而肝移植术后并发AKI的患者死亡率增加到15.5%和25.9%[7]。甚至有文献报道,肝移植术后并发AKI的患者30 d死亡率高达50%,若需行肾脏替代治疗,死亡率达90%[8,9]。本文从肝移植受体肾功能的评估及AKI的诊断及其引起肝移植术后AKI的危险因素方面对此严重的并发症进行讨论,旨在提高对术后AKI的认识,加强围手术期管理,进而改善患者的短期及长期预后。

1 肝移植受体肾功能的评估及AKI的诊断

1.1 肾脏的常用血清学标志物

1.1.1 血清肌酐含量(serum creatinine, SCr) SCr是主要由肌肉代谢产生,随尿液排出,是临床上广泛应用的评估肾功能的指标,其含量可受多种因素影响,包括年龄、种族、性别、体重、肌肉含量、饮食等。在肝硬化患者中,由于肌肉含量降低、肝脏代谢能力减退、肾小管分泌增加、为避免高氨血症而减少摄入蛋白等原因[7,10-12],SCr常呈现较低水平。在肝硬化患者中使用SCr对肾脏功能的评估是不准确的,基于SCr值的计算会高估肾小球滤过率(glomerular filtration rate,GFR)[14,15],且SCr升高往往是肾功能受损的晚期指标[11,13]。

1.1.2 清除率 菊粉可自由通過肾小球滤过膜,在肾小管与集合管既不被重吸收又不被分泌,因此菊粉清除率等于肾小球滤过率。与24 h肌酐清除率(creatinine clearance rate,CrCl)相比,使用菊粉清除率对GFR进行计算更为精确,尤其是当患者GFR较低时[16]。但针对于肝硬化患者,由于肾脏功能波动较大,且因腹水、水肿、胸腔积液等容积分布异常,使得利用上述外源性物质来评估肾功能十分困难。

1.1.3 胱抑素C 胱抑素C是机体所有有核细胞产生的一种短肽类物质,具有诸多优点:仅经肾小球滤过,不被肾小管分泌,且极少受饮食、肌肉量或炎症的影响。因此与SCr、外源性标记物不同,是公认的用于评价肝硬化患者肾功能的敏感指标[17,18]。Ling Q等[19]对中国肝移植受者的数据进行分析,基于胱抑素C计算的估计肾小球滤过率(estimated glomerular filtration rate,eGFR)与真实GFR非常接近。

1.1.4 血清中性粒细胞明胶酶相关载脂蛋白(serum neutrophil gelatinase-associated lipo-protein,NGAL) NGAL是一种当机体受到刺激时,由受损的肾小管细胞高表达的蛋白类物质,可促进上皮细胞再生。以前有研究显示AKI患者尿NGAL水平可高达正常值的100倍,近期已被证实有利于肝移植术后AKI的诊断[5,20,21]。

1.1.5 肾损伤分子1(kidney injury molecule-1,KIM-1) 是肾脏近曲小管上皮细胞的一种跨膜糖蛋白,属于免疫球蛋白。其在受损后再生的肾小管上皮细胞中表达显著增强。KIM-1能迅速、灵敏、特异地反映肾脏损伤及恢复过程,期待可成为一种检测早期肾损伤的可靠标记物。

2 肾功能的评估

在评估肾功能时,常从SCr、尿检(包括显微镜检)、尿蛋白定量、肾脏超声检查开始。由于SCr在肾脏受损48~72 h以后才有大幅度的升高[22,23],因此,对于SCr哪怕轻微的升高,也应给予足够的重视(值得注意的是,在肝病患者中,若基于SCr进行评估,往往会高估其GFR)。尿液检查可用于所有肾功能不全的患者,24 h蛋白尿>500 mg或异常尿沉渣均提示肾脏实质病变。肾脏超声检查可根据一些结构性改变如皮质变薄、肾脏萎缩,用以检出慢性肾脏疾病。

当强烈怀疑肾脏实质病变时,肾组织活检可有助于诊断,但需慎重考虑与之相关的风险,如出血、感染等。肝病患者,尤其是肝硬化患者,因凝血功能障碍、血小板减少等原因,面临更大的出血风险。ORiordan A等[24]对肝移植术后肾脏功能不全的患者进行肾组织活检,有17%患者并发大出血,需要输血或介入栓塞治疗。因此在高危人群中进行肾组织活检的有创检查,需要认真考虑风险-获益比。

3 急性肾损伤的诊断

2012年改善全球肾脏病预后组织(Kidney Disease Improving Global Outcomes,KDIGO)对AKI的定义和分级标准进行统一,综合了之前广泛应用于临床的ADQI(Acute Dialysis Quality Initiative)诊断标准及AKIN(Acute Kidney Injury Network)诊断标准发布了《KDIGO急性肾损伤临床实践指南》,使之更利于AKI的预防、诊断、治疗和研究。该指南明确了AKI的定义并制定了相应的分期标准:在48 h内SCr上升≥26.5 μmol/L;和(或)已知或假定肾功能损害发生在7 d之内,SCr上升至≥基础值的1.5倍;和(或)尿量<0.5 mL/(kg·h),持续6 h的即可诊断为AKI[25],且如果Scr和尿量分级不一致时,采纳较高的分级。但该标准是否适用于肝病患者,仍需进一步研究。

4 导致肝移植术后AKI的相关危险因素

4.1 术前终末期肝病模型(model for end-stage liver disease,MELD)

MELD主要用于评估受体接收肝移植手术必要性及紧急性,并广泛适用于预测慢性肝脏疾病患者3个月的死亡率[26]。于2002年被美国器官获取和移植管理机构(UNOS)作为器官分配的依据。该公式的计算仅包含3个指标,血清肌酐(SCr)、血清胆红素、国际标准化比值(international normalized ratio,INR),它将易于获得且客观的指标作为参数,消除了等待供体时间的因素。相关研究结果表明[4,27],MELD评分是术后早期AKI发生的影响因素。

但其具有以下局限性:①设计MELD时,将已有肾疾病患者排除在外[28];且并未区分急性肾损伤(AKI)与慢性肾脏疾病(CKD);鉴于肝移植术前的肾功能不全是患者生存率的重要影响因素(见后),所以该评分对肝移植术后AKI的预测功能需进一步讨论;③性别因素未考虑在内,有报道称,因女性SCr值较男性低,在MELD评分中占劣势,接受肝移植手术的可能性较男性小,且3个月死亡率较男性高[29]。

4.2终末期肝病(end-stage liver disease,ESLD)

在某些情况下,终末期肝病的病因似乎与术后AKI的发生有关。非酒精性脂肪性肝炎(non-alcoholic steatohepatitis,NASH)、非酒精性脂肪性肝病(non-alcoholic fatty liver disease, NAFLD)与其他导致终末期肝病的病因相比,与肝移植术后AKI的发生有更强的相关性[30]。目前有多种假设机制来解释这种相关性,其中包括炎性、脂肪变的肝脏产生多种促炎症介质,全身胰岛素抵抗和动脉粥样硬化等[31,32],但具体的分子机制仍未被阐明。

4.3术前已存在的肾功能不全

术前肾功能不全可引起多种不良的预后,包括医疗费用的增加、移植后膿毒血症、更长的ICU停留时间、术后透析治疗等[33]。有研究显示[34],肝移植术后发生AKI患者与未发生者相比,术前SCr水平更高,且术前SCr值为肝移植术后发生AKI的独立危险因素。在严重肝脏疾病患者中,肾功能不全是常见的合并症,在临床实践中,不仅要做到早期发现,更重要的是对其不同病因做出判断,因为针对性的治疗及预后情况各有不同。

肝肾综合征(hepatorenal syndrome, HRS),是失代偿期肝硬化及肝衰竭的严重并发症之一,是导致患者术后死亡的独立危险因素。其病理生理学改变主要是各种原因导致的有效循环血量减少和肾小动脉收缩导致的肾脏灌注不足。有多种机制参与其中,包括肾交感神经张力增高,肾素-血管紧张素-醛固酮系统的激活,抗利尿激素的过度分泌,激肽系统活动异常以及多种细胞因子的产生与激活等[34]。大多数HRS无肾脏的器质性损害,但后续可继发急性肾小管坏死,导致不可逆性的器质性肾病。以往据HRS进展速度被分为1型和2型HRS,其中1型HRS多发生于急性肝衰竭患者,进展迅速,且预后极差,2015年国际腹水俱乐部(ICA)将1型HRS定义为AKI的一种特殊类型,即AKI-HRS[35]。

诸多对肝移植受体围术期进行的肾组织活检结果表明,终末期肝病患者并发肾功能不全的原因绝不仅限于HRS,还包括IgA肾病、乙型病毒性肝炎相关性肾病等[8,36,37]。

4.4肝移植术中的再灌注综合征(post-reperfusion syndrome,PRS)

PRS已被认为是肝移植术后AKI的独立危险因素[38,39],其特点包括循环系统功能紊乱和代谢改变,可导致多器官功能受损,尤其是肾脏损伤。再灌注综合征的发生与发展中,最主要的机制是缺血再灌注损伤(ischemia-reperfusion injury,IRI)。PRS诱发AKI的主要病理生理学机制是血流动力学改变和全身炎症反应导致的肾小管细胞死亡[40,41]。肝移植术中PRS主要与供受体特征、移植物质量、手术操作等多种因素相关[42]。

4.4.1 供体特征 供体主要来源有循环衰竭死亡患者(donation after circulatory death,DCD)、脑死亡患者(donation after brain death,DBD),DCD供体与传统的DBD供体相比,热缺血时间更长。Leithead JA等[43]在2012年发表一项关于DCD供体肝移植术后AKI的研究,结果显示:与DBD供体相比,DCD供体肝移植术后AKI的发生率更高(53.4% vs. 31.8%)。且围术期天门冬氨酸转氨酶(aspartate aminotransferase,ASAT)峰值是术后肾脏功能的独立预测因子,而ASAT是肝脏IRI的代表性指标,可见,热缺血导致的移植物损伤,可通过驱动全身炎症反应,促进术中、术后AKI的发生。此外,热缺血还会增加移植物对冷缺血损害的易感性[44]。

4.4.2 手术因素 肝移植手术目前两大常规术式是原位肝移植术和背驮式肝移植术,后者并发术后AKI的风险更低[45],可能原因:①背驮式手术在术中保留或部分保留下腔静脉的血流,与原位肝移植术相比,对循环稳定性的影响更小,从而对各脏器的影响也较小,②虽然对下腔静脉血流的保留并不能预防术中低血压,但是在无肝期的门体分流可减少内脏充血,理论上可以减少内脏器官的缺血以及随之而来的再灌注损伤。但对于术前已合并肾损伤的肝移植受者,选择单独肝移植(liver transplantation alone,LTA)、肝肾联合移植(simultaneous liver-kidney transplantation,SLKT),目前尚缺少多中心、可信服的统一标准[36,46]。

4.5 术中低血压

有许多文献表明术中升压药的使用是术后AKI的独立危险因素[47,48]。在肝硬化晚期患者,门脉高压导致多种舒血管因子(如NO、前列环素)的释放及肝内、外分流,使体循环充盈不足,所以肝硬化晚期的患者往往呈现高动力循环状态。术中低血压与以下情况相关:①随着病肝的移除,机体出现剧烈的血流动力学紊乱,静脉回流较前显著减少(除个别肝脏肿大的情况外),②术中大量失血;③下腔静脉的阻断减少静脉回流(约60%),并减少心输出量(4%~60%);④下腔静脉钳夹复位以后所致的一过性的严重低血压。所有这些导致血流动力学不稳的因素无疑都会导致肾脏灌注不足,从而造成术中或术后的AKI。

4.6 术中输血

贫血、术中输血是肝移植术后AKI的危险因素[44,48]。可能的相关因素如下:①输血的原因,如贫血、术中失血、凝血功能障碍等,均会通过多种机制对肾脏细胞造成损害[49,50]。②许多研究表明,输入的红细胞在受者体内贮存的过程中会发生多种功能或结构改变,进而促进肾损伤的发展[51]。其中的机制包括:ATP和2,3-DPG的消耗、产生NO的能力受损、血管内皮粘附因子的增加、磷脂释放、促炎因子的积累、产生游离血红蛋白和铁離子等[51,52]。而且,红细胞在贮存过程中会有大约30%因结构改变而被巨噬细胞吞噬[53]。最终,贮存的红细胞在被输入的最初几个小时内,反而会减少组织供氧,加重氧化应激,促进炎症反应[54,55]。与之前相比,一些学者甚至建议增加术中缩血管药物的使用以减少输血需求。显然,在治疗过程中,必须格外注重止血和优化凝血功能。

4.7 脓毒症

脓毒症引起AKI的确切的病理生理机制尚不清晰。与肾脏灌注不足相比,脓毒症相关的AKI似乎与肾内血流重新分布关系更为密切。此外,最近的研究结果表明,脓毒症导致AKI的病理生理机制是不同于非感染性AKI的[56]。另一方面,对脓毒症患者足量补液造成的体液超负荷也与AKI相关[57]。

4.8使用免疫抑制剂

钙调磷酸酶抑制剂(calcineurin inhibitors,CINs),如环孢素A、他克莫司是肝移植术后免疫维持治疗的最基本的药物之一,其具有肾毒性,常导致急性或慢性肾损伤。CNIs诱导的AKI主要是因为肾小球入球小动脉收缩,肾血流量减少导致的GFR下降,常发生在开始服药治疗的早期,当剂量减少或停用后一般可以恢复。相比之下,晚期出现的CNIs相关的慢性肾功能衰竭和间质性肾炎有关,通常不可逆[58]。然而,在多个研究中均未发现CINs是术后AKI的独立预测因子。可能是因为AKI具有剂量和浓度依赖性,在肝移植患者使用时往往需要长期监测血药浓度。还有研究表明,肾脏保护性免疫方案(他克莫司血药浓度5~8 ng/mL)与标准免疫方案(他克莫司血药浓度8~10 ng/mL)相比,可以显著降低术后AKI的发生率[43,59-61]。

綜上所述,对终末期肝病患者肾功能的评价尚缺乏特异性强、灵敏度高的生物学指标,动态监测血清肌酐含量仍是目前应用最广泛的肾功能评估手段,各种新型生物学指标仍待进一步研究。目前对肝移植术后AKI无统一的诊断标准,现有的基于血清肌酐含量的诊断标准有其局限性。肝移植术后AKI是多种因素共同作用的结果。术前对患者进行准确评估,严格把握手术指征,并对各种高危因素进行干预,尽量恢复内环境稳态。术中选择合理手术方式,加强围术期管理,维持血流动力学的稳定,术后选择肾脏保护性免疫方案等可以明显降低术后AKI发生率,显著改善患者预后。

[参考文献]

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(收稿日期:2017-09-04)

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