高中英语写作错误类型及解决方式探析*

2017-03-09 17:53蔡炯梅
湖州师范学院学报 2017年5期
关键词:词块二语母语

蔡炯梅

(湖州新世纪外国语学校,浙江 湖州 313000)

高中英语写作错误类型及解决方式探析*

蔡炯梅

(湖州新世纪外国语学校,浙江 湖州 313000)

写作历来是最考验学生英语综合能力的一个题型,也是最难突击提升和拿高分的一项。随着高考的不断改革,高中英语写作的总分值也从以往的30分提高到40分,题型也从一篇应用文写作改为两篇,如此必将提升写作难度。然而,万变不离其宗,要想提高写作得分,归根结底还是要提升写作能力。本文认为首先要明确学生写作中的错误类型及原因,再对症下药找到解决错误的方法。

高中英语写作;错误分析;解决方法

高中生不能很好地写作,归根结底是不知道如何准确用词、合理组句并连句成段乃至成篇。词汇选择的地道与准确,句法运用的丰富与灵活,篇章谋划的合理与流畅,是一篇好文章生成的关键。词汇和句法问题属于语用问题,而语用又基于对语言的掌握。例如,一位学生写了这样的句子:“He came to fame rely on his hard working.”首先,hard working是形容词而不是名词。其次,come to fame和rely on 这两个动词不能这样用。以上两个错误就是词汇和句法方面的错误。而篇章问题主要是思维问题。有的学生不会准确使用关联词使文章结构合理、流畅;还有的学生所写的文章内容怪异、逻辑混乱。我们必须明确知道学生在写作中会犯哪些错误,并对其原因进行分析,才能找到解决错误的有效方法。

一、写作错误归因

“语言学习者出现错误是二语习得中不可避免的现象,事实上错误伴随着语言学习的全过程。”[1](P5)对错误进行分析是二语习得的一个重要方法,有助于研究者把重点从发现错误转移到研究错误、理解错误和解决错误上来。对待错误的态度也从难以容忍变得客观、理性。错误分析对语言教学影响巨大,有助于教师很好地了解学生在二语学习过程中所处的状态并采取措施,可为教师提供丰富的素材,也为如何进行教学调整提供依据。写作错误分析也是如此。对写作错误进行分析,不仅有助于学生了解自己的错误类型,并对目的语进行不断的假设、验证和改进,还有助于教师了解学生语言学习的方式和现状,对教学具有诊断、反馈和调整的功能。

写作错误可以归结为语际错误和语内错误。语际错误是受母语的干扰而形成的。对二语学生来说,他们对母语的语言习惯和文化内涵早已有根深蒂固的认知,在目的语的学习过程中,无可避免地受到母语习惯的影响。如果母语与目的语相似,母语起到正迁移的作用,有利于二语学习;相反,如果母语与目的语的差别较大,母语就会对目的语的学习产生干扰,产生负迁移。在中国学生中,语际负迁移主要表现为词汇的汉英互译和汉语顺序的句式。语内错误主要是由于对目的语的语言结构掌握不足而造成的。汉语文化和英语文化之间有着难以跨越的鸿沟,汉语属于汉藏语系,侧重逻辑思维,写作时注重“意合”,而英美人更注重“形合”。当学生用英语写作时,因词汇量有限,语法知识薄弱,英语思维习惯缺乏,在写作过程中表现为对英语的过度概括,误用或忽略规则,以及错误假设等。总而言之,就是学习者的知识储量不足,对英语的词块没有丰富的累积,以至于英语句式在形成过程中缺少流畅性和地道性。句子是篇章构建的基础,没有准确的句子,文章自然就无法达到满意的表情达意的效果。

那么什么是词块呢?所谓词块,就是以整体形式存储在大脑中的一串词,可以整体或稍作改动后作为预制组块(固定用法)被提取出来,供学习者使用。主要包括固定词组、固定句型和习惯用语等。例如:be devoted to; rise to fame; There is no doubt that; It is said that; It is universally acknowledged that; on one hand, on the other hand; what’s more等。“我们日常生活中的大部分交际都是通过词块的形式而非单词的形式来完成的,像这些语义较固定的各类形式的词块在自然语言中占到90%的比例”[2](P66)。词块具有语法、语义和语境的特征,能够加快语言处理的速度,并对语言输入和输出的准确性和流利性有重大意义,被看作是语言教学的理想单位。“因此,英语教学的重点应该是如何使学生掌握大量的词汇组块,并用他们构成完整的句子和语篇,而不是教授独立的词语”[3](P17)如果学生平时在词块上能注重积累,勤于思考,善于运用,在写作中能以词块作为写作、修改和提升的基础,把词块运用的准确性作为训练的重点,那么必定能写出地道、流畅、甚至高级的文章。

二、写作错误类型

不管是语际错误还是语内错误,在学生的作文中都广泛存在。具体可以分为以下五种类型。

第一,词汇误用。指学生在词汇使用和搭配上所显示的一种随意性。它的范围很广,包括动词、名词、冠词、介词等等。例如学生想表达“累积知识”,他用了multiply knowledge。从动宾搭配上来讲,multiply可以做及物动词带宾语,但是从语言使用的合理性上来讲,multiply knowledge是不符合使用习惯的。又如,很多学生在短文改错中出现wait you时无法找出错误,是因为在这些学生的语料库中“等你”就是wait you, 而非wait for you。又有许多学生在一些固定搭配问题上出现随意增添或删减冠词、不定冠词等错误,如“pay visit to”“ make a progress”等等。这样的错误数不胜数,说明学生对一些固定的词块和词块的习惯搭配掌握不足。

第二,逻辑垂悬。指句子虽然在语法上是正确的,但在逻辑上却不合理,甚至荒诞可笑。例如2009年浙江省高考题“去阳光敬老院慰问老人”。有些学生写到:They brought fruits to the old to keep them healthy. 从语法上看没有问题,但从逻辑上看,虽然多吃水果有利于身体健康,但仅仅给老人带去一次水果就能让他们保持健康似乎有点牵强。所以合理的逻辑应该是给老人带去水果向老人表示敬重和关爱:They brought fruits to the old as a gesture of respect and love. 又比如说在写“How to treat mistakes”一文时,学生写道:“You can’t live a comfortable life without making any mistakes.” 他可能想表达“ Life is always full of mistakes.”或是“Life is not a paved road. It is natural for you to make mistakes before you reach success.”但他却写成“不犯错误就不能过舒适的生活”,这样的逻辑就有些太绝对了。再如学生在写“去科技馆参观”一文时写道:“We went on a journey to the past and visited the museum.”这个句子的逻辑也不对,没有呈现合理的螺旋上升的顺序,应该这样写:“We went on a journey to the past by visiting the museum.” 由此可见,逻辑合理对写一篇高质量好文是至关重要的。

第三,表述空泛。指在内容上的一种假大空现象,如学生经常会写到:“As a student of the 21st century, we should study hard and try to learn more knowledge.”意为“作为21世纪的学生,我们应该努力学习掌握更多的知识。”如此说来,似乎作为其他时代的学生就不用努力学习和掌握更多知识了;又或是说努力学习和掌握更多知识是21世纪学生独有的特征。显然前半句太过空泛。又比如说,很多学生喜欢用broaden one’s horizon 这个词块。的确,“拓展某人的眼界”是个高级词块,但并不是所有情况都适合用它。比如在写2014年的高考作文“图书馆订书建议”时,你推荐文学类书籍或科普类书籍,因为这些书可以拓展眼界,这很好。但是在写到关于“如何布置教室墙面”时,你说“We can put up a world map on the wall to broaden our horizon.”这就显得有点空泛了。事实上,在墙上贴上一张世界地图,直接而具体的目的就是让我们一抬头就能学习并牢记一些世界地理概况。

第四,汉式英语。是中国学生在英文写作过程中犯的最普遍的一个错误,受到母语负迁移的影响。“人们倾向于把他们本民族的语言和文化的形式、意义以及他们的分布迁移到外族的语言和文化中去”。[4](P7)根据对比分析理论,母语与二语的区别越大,造成的学习困难也越大。汉语和英语的区别很大。比如英语要求主谓一致,而汉语中没有这样的要求;中文主要讲究“意”,而英文更注重“形”;所以中国学生总是习惯于写这样的句子:“There have a girl smile at me.” “I am the first time come to Hangzhou.”因为他们总是先用母语遣词造句,然后在自己的记忆库中寻求与母语有对应关系的英文单词,可是中文和英语在句子结构和语法使用上有很大的区别,所以结果往往就是Chinglish。

第五,语篇不畅。语篇的形成是建立在篇章的上下文结构上的。语篇不畅指的是:单个的句子在语法和语义上是没有错误的,但是句与句之间由于缺失关联词或由于关联词误用,导致上下文的逻辑失调或连贯性不够,以致整篇文章读起来不够顺畅,这样的错误是属于比较高级的错误。例如有学生写了以下一段文章: Some people think it is good to make friends on line. It is easy to make a lot of friends. Students needn't worry when they are talking about themselves. Students can have a chance to learn foreign languages.

这段文章一共四个单句,每个单句在语法和词汇的使用上都是没有错误的,但是由于没有很明确的把句与句之间的关系表示出来,使整个段落显得有点零碎,加上词块不够高级,分值自然打不高。如果加上一定的关联词,效果就不一样了。例如:

Some people think it is good to make friends on line, because it gives them not only easy access to making friends, but also a good chance to learn foreign languages. Additionally, they needn't worry when they are talking about themselves.

三、解决方法

无论是语际错误还是语内错误,都是学习者对二语掌握不足造成的。调查发现,学习者学习程度越高,受母语干扰就越少,语内错误出现频率也越小。如何根据学生的错误来调整教学,采取有效的措施来提升学生的写作水平,经过多年教学实践,笔者发现词块教学法对学生的二语写作有非常大的帮助。

(一)利用固定词组提高语言表达的得体性

词块中有许多稳定、规范的表达,它们比习语更灵活——因为习语无法改变,缺少创造性,如rain cats and dogs;比自由搭配更稳定——自由搭配太随意,一不小心就失去了语言的地道性;词块的固定表达正好介于两者之间,既避免了太固定而缺乏创造的空间,又避免了太随意而失去了语言的得体性,可以供学习者灵活使用。熟练和准确地使用词块,不仅可以减少语言从思维到输出的时间,而且可以提高语言使用的准确性和地道性,避免因文化差异而带来的语用失误。比如只要准确掌握了look forward to(doing) sth.这个词块,我们就可以输出很多语言。例如: I am looking forward to your reply. The girl has been looking forward to buying the doll. 又如掌握了be devoted to (doing) sth.这个词块,我们可以说The musician is devoted to his music. Lin Qiaozhi was devoted to her career in women’s disease. 等标准地道的句子。

同时,掌握的词块越高级,使用越熟练,输出的句子就越漂亮。如以下例句:

例1:原句:Because the weather was good, our journey was comfortable.

提升:Thanks to the weather, our journey was comfortable.

例2:原句:We all think he is a great man.

提升:We all think highly of the man.

例3:原句:He couldn’t pass the driving test.

提升:He failed to pass the driving test.

例4:原句:Suddenly, I thought out a good idea.

提升:A good idea suddenly hit me.

例5:原句:As a result the plan was a failure.

提升:The plan turned out to be a failure.

我们可以看出,经过高级词块改写后的句子,在语言的简约和地道性上大大提升,每个句子的质量得到了改善。

又如有一篇关于校园英语广播栏目设置的意见征文,内容共有英语歌曲欣赏(English Music World)、英文演讲赏析(Best-known English Speeches)和英美社交礼仪介绍(English Social Etiquette)三个栏目。要求用英语写一封信,推荐这三个栏目,并分别说明理由。以下是学生写的三句话:

The English Music World can help us learn English better and reduce our pressure.

The Best-known English Speeches is good for us students.

The program of English Social Etiquette will help us a lot.

如果用高级词块来改写的话,就可以大大提升句子的质量。如:

The English Music World can not only help us learn English better but also reduce our pressure.

We students can benefit from the Best-known English Speeches.

The program of English Social Etiquette will make a great difference.

由此可见,利用固定词块,尤其是高级词块,可以大大提升语言表达的得体性。

(二)利用固定句型和定语从句提高遣词造句的灵活性

英语中有很多固定的词块是可以直接用来遣词造句的。例如:There is no denying that; there is no doubt that; It is no use doing; It takes sb. sth. to do sth.; It would be a good idea to do sth.; It is amazing to do sth.; I would appreciate it if等等。如果我们在指导学生写作时,能把这些词块的概念引入到写作中来,学生任何一句话的输出都引导他们用词块来表达,那么学生的语言必定是地道的,也必定能在很大程度上消灭中式英语。上文的例句如若能放在句型中来输出的话,一定还能增色不少。如:

It would be a good idea if you can set up an English Music World. It can not only help us learn English better, but also reduce our pressure.

There is no doubt that we students can benefit from the Best-known English Speeches.

It can make a great difference if we can have the program of English Social Etiquette.

如此一来,所有句子的立刻增色不少。除了固定句型,定语从句的使用在英语写作中有着无可替代的重要作用。请看以下学生的范文:

It would be better if you can set up an English Music World. It can not only help us learn English better, but also reduce our pressure. There is no doubt that we students can benefit from the Best-known English Speeches. We can learn more effective skills in how to make an extraordinary English speech and improve our spoken English as well. I think it can make a great difference if we can have the project of English Social Etiquette. We can learn so many communication skills and cultures in English countries that we can behave ourselves well when we are abroad.

从每个单句来看,已经是很不错的句子了。但是从句子之间的联系来看却不够紧密,如果用定语从句来改写,将大大提升作文品质。如:

例6:It would be better if you can set up an English Music World.

It can not only help us learn English better, but also reduce our pressure.

提升:It would be better if you can set up an English Music World, which, I think, can not only help us learn English better, but also reduce our pressure.

例7:There is no doubt that we students can benefit from the Best-known English Speeches.

We can learn more effective skills in how to make an extraordinary English speech and improve our spoken English as well.

提升:There is no doubt that we students can benefit from the Best-known English Speeches, from which we can learn more effective skills in how to make an extraordinary English speech and improve our spoken English as well.

例8:I think it can make a great difference if we can have the project of English Social Etiquette.

We can learn so many communication skills and cultures in English countries that we can behave ourselves well when we are abroad.

提升:I think it can make a great difference if we can have the project of English Social Etiquette, where we can learn so many communication skills and cultures in English countries that we can behave ourselves well when we are abroad.

用三个定语从句把句子与句子紧密的结合在一起,不仅使文章更加紧凑,而且使文章提升档次。

(三)利用上下文关联词提高语篇的流畅性

当句子形成后,就面临组句成篇的问题。这时,文章的上下文关联词和过渡词就显得尤为重要。这是上面所改写的那段文字:

例9:It would be a good idea if you can set up an English Music World, which, I think, can not only help us learn English better, but also reduce our pressure. There is no doubt that we students can benefit from the Best-known English Speeches, from which we can learn more effective skills in how to make an extraordinary English speech and improve our spoken English as well. I think it can make a great difference if we can have the program of English Social Etiquette, where we can learn so many communication skills and cultures in English countries that we can behave ourselves well when we are abroad.

不得不承认,从单个句子来看,质量是很高的。但是连句成段乃至成篇后,三个点之间的关系似乎没有很明确,以至于整个段落缺少一种一气呵成的感觉,所以还需要用一些连接词或过渡词来连句成段乃至成篇。例如:

例10:To my understanding, it would be better if you can set up an English Music World, which, I think, can not only help us learn English better, but also reduce our pressure. Besides, there is no doubt that we students can benefit from the Best-known English Speeches, from which we can learn more effective skills in how to make an extraordinary English speech and improve our spoken English as well. Last but not least, I think it can make a great difference if we can have the program of English Social Etiquette, where we can learn so many communication skills and cultures in English countries that we can behave ourselves well when we are abroad.

总之,在二语的学习过程中,学习者不可能不犯错,而且犯错的形式各种各样,只有正视并分析这些错误,找出原因,对症下药,才能对学生的写作起到帮助。本文强调教学过程中词块这一概念的输入和使用,希望能对学生的写作有所裨益。

[1]史俊杰. 错误分析理论对高中英语写作教学的启示[D]. 上海:上海师范大学,2012.

[2]吴静,王瑞东. 词块-英语教学有待开发的资源[J]. 山东外语教学,2002(3).

[3]李进. 词汇组块理论在高中英语写作教学中的应用研究[D]. 南京:南京师范大学,2008.

[4]孙丽娇.高中生英语写作错误分析及解决对策[J].长春:东北师范大学,2008.

[责任编辑 铁晓娜]

On the Types of English Writing Errors in Senior Middle Schools and the Solutions

CAI Jiongmei

(Huzhou New Century Foreign Language School, Huzhou 313000, China)

Writing has always been the most test of a comprehensive English ability of students a problem, but also the most difficult to assault and take a high score. With the continuous reform of the college entrance examination, high school English writing total score from the previous 30 points to 40 points, the title from an application of writing to two, so will enhance the difficulty of writing. However, the ever-changing, in order to improve the writing score, in the final analysis, or to enhance the writing ability. This paper argues that we must first clear the types of errors and causes of students' writing, and then find the wrong way to find the wrong way.

high school English writing; error analysis; solution

2017-03-07

蔡炯梅,中学一级,从事高中英语教学研究。

G633.41

A

1009-1734(2017)05-0101-05

猜你喜欢
词块二语母语
中国大学EFL班级的二语自我分型特征分析
二语习得理论对初中英语课外阅读教学的实践探索
母语
《神经语言学和心理语言学视角下的二语习得》述评
英语专业学生与本族语名人演讲中词块使用特点探究
高中英语词块教学现状调查研究及应用策略分析
母语
词块中心教学法在高职英语教学中的应用初探
词块在初中英语写作教学中的应用研究
基于汉语方位词特点的二语教学策略——以“左”“右”为例