鹿奎奎,凌敏,卞倩
(江苏省疾病预防控制中心,江苏南京210009)
大气细颗粒物致呼吸系统氧化应激和炎症反应损伤机制研究进展
鹿奎奎,凌敏,卞倩
(江苏省疾病预防控制中心,江苏南京210009)
大气细颗粒物是指大气中直径≤2.5 μm的颗粒物,也称为PM2.5,是大气污染的主要成分之一。PM2.5成分复杂,粒径小,表面积大,可携带大量的化学物质、细菌和病毒等到达肺泡并在肺泡中沉积,通过血液循环到达全身各个系统,严重危害人类健康。氧化应激和炎症反应损伤是PM2.5致呼吸系统损伤的重要机制之一,本文从人群流行病学、体内实验和体外实验3个部分综述PM2.5致呼吸系统氧化应激和炎症反应损伤机制的主要研究进展。人群流行病学的研究结果 表明,PM2.5与哮喘、慢性阻塞性肺病等呼吸系统疾病的发病率密切相关。在动物实验中主要体现在气道损伤,引发哮喘和肺组织等器官损伤,细胞损伤机制主要包括细胞信号通路改变,各种类型的DNA损伤、免疫损伤、细胞自噬和细胞凋亡等。
空气污染物;氧化应激;炎症
大气细颗粒物(fine particulate matter,PM2.5)是指环境空气中的空气动力学当量直径≤2.5 μm的颗粒物,也称可入肺颗粒物。PM2.5与人体健康的关系非常密切,已成为近年来大气污染研究关注的焦点。2013年10月,国际癌症研究机构(IARC)已将室外大气污染列为人类致癌物之一(Group 1)[1]。2015年底,著名医学杂志《柳叶刀》(Lancet)发表的最新全球疾病负担研究结果 表明,PM2.5污染在健康危险因素中排名第5(前4名分别是高血压、吸烟、高盐饮食和不良饮食习惯)[2]。大量流行病学研究表明,PM2.5能引起机体呼吸系统、心血管系统和免疫系统疾病,其主要损伤机制包括氧化应激和炎症反应损伤、遗传损伤、免疫损伤、细胞自噬和凋亡等,本文拟就目前国内外学者对PM2.5致呼吸系统氧化应激和炎症反应损伤的最新进展进行综述。
随着对大气颗粒物的深入研究,人们逐渐认识到PM2.5对空气环境污染和人体健康危害的严重性。流行病学研究结果 表明,PM2.5与呼吸系统的发病率密切相关[3-6],特别是可吸入颗粒物引起哮喘、慢性阻塞性肺病、肺部感染的住院率和死亡率升高[7-10]。国内外流行病学调查研究结果 显示,短期暴露于PM2.5会引起高血压,诱发心律失常、心肌缺血、心肌梗死、心力衰竭甚至猝死[11-12],长期暴露能使人群呼吸系统和心血管系统疾病的发生和死亡风险升高[13-14]。PM2.5进入呼吸系统可引起肺部及全身的氧化应激反应,激活凝血系统,促进动脉硬化,导致自主神经系统失衡,进而引起一系列的氧化应激损伤和炎症反应[15]、血管功能障碍[16]、动脉粥样硬化[17]和自主神经系统失衡[18]等、继而引起心血管事件的发生和死亡风险。
有学者对淮安市[19]、济南市[20]和北京市[21-22]大气中PM2.5浓度对不同人群呼吸系统疾病日门诊量影响进行研究,发现随PM2.5浓度升高,呼吸系统疾病日门诊量显著上升,两者呈正相关。PM2.5急性暴露与居民呼吸系统疾病死亡的关系密切,PM2.5浓度升高可能导致居民呼吸系统疾病死亡人数增加,对于老人等易感人群这种关系尤为明显[23-24]。Hamra等[25]研究发现,PM2.5与肺癌相关危险度在吸烟者中为1.44%(95%CI:1.04%~1.22%),在不吸烟者中为1.18%(95%CI:1.00%~1.39%)。有流行病学证据表明,PM2.5的金属成分可能会增加儿童哮喘和过敏症的风险[26],PM2.5可能通过氧化应激酪氨酸激酶(Janus激酶)/信号转导和转录激活因子(Janus kinase/signal transducer and activator of transcription,JAK/STAT)信号通路诱发哮喘加重,并调控哮喘炎症反应[27]。妊娠期间暴露于高浓度PM2.5可引起呼吸系统和心血管系统损伤,进而增加早产[28-29]和婴儿低出生体质量的发生率[30-31]。
在PM2.5动物染毒实验中,气管滴注法、经鼻滴注法和全身暴露法是常用的染毒方式。相比较而言,全身暴露法更能模拟真实的PM2.5染毒环境,但对仪器设备的要求较高,实施难度较大;气管滴注法是实验中广泛认可的常用方法;经鼻暴露法较少被使用。动物实验中的呼吸系统损伤主要包括气道损伤、引发哮喘和肺组织等器官损伤。
2.1 气道损伤和哮喘
PM2.5进入呼吸系统后最先接触的是呼吸道黏膜,在正常情况下,PM2.5吸入后被气道表面的黏液吸附,并通过纤毛有规律的摆动排出。但如长期吸入高浓度PM2.5,会对黏液纤毛造成损伤,降低其清除能力,导致细颗粒物停留在呼吸道。沉积的PM2.5通过机械损伤及表面携带的有害物质发挥毒性作用,引起黏膜水肿、上皮细胞增生、血管扩张及嗜酸性粒细胞浸润等病理改变,引起或加重气道炎症及氧化应激反应[32]。胡建荣等[33]采用气管滴注方式将持续被动吸烟45 d的大鼠暴露于PM2.5中,24 h后测定其肺功能,发现被动吸烟大鼠随PM2.5暴露浓度的升高,肺泡腔内渗出、充血及肺泡管扩张等结构破坏进一步加剧,其用力呼气量(forced vital capacity,FEV)、0.3 s FEV(FEV0.3)及两者的比值(FEV/FEV0.3)以及峰值呼气流速等肺功能参数显著降低,支气管肺泡灌洗液(bronchoalveolar lavage fluid,BALF)中白细胞介素6(interleukin-6,IL-6)和丙二醛含量显著升高,表明短期暴露PM2.5加重了被动吸烟大鼠的气道慢性炎症及氧化应激反应。刘燕等[34]将哮喘小鼠经鼻滴入不同剂量PM2.5后发现,PM2.531.6和100 μg·kg-1组小鼠气道上皮黏膜下出现以嗜酸性粒细胞和淋巴细胞浸润为主的大量炎症细胞浸润,并伴有气道平滑肌明显增厚,BALF中IL-4和IL-13水平显著升高,说明PM2.5暴露可加重哮喘小鼠的气道炎症反应。
2.2 肺组织氧化损伤
BALF中各种细胞因子的改变是衡量PM2.5致肺组织氧化应激反应和炎症反应的重要参数。闫庆倩等[35]利用大鼠实验比较广州、东莞、深圳和肇庆4个城市的大气PM2.5对呼吸系统的毒性作用,通过气管滴注不同剂量PM2.51,3和10 mg·kg-1,分别于染毒后48 h和28 d后处死大鼠,测定BALF中总蛋白(total protein,TP)、超氧化物歧化酶(superoxide dismutase,SOD)、乳酸脱氢酶(lactate dehydrogenase,LDH)和肿瘤坏死因子α(tumor necrosis factor-α,TNF-α)的变化。结果 表明,染毒组大鼠BALF中TP,LDH和TNF-α水平增高,SOD活性降低。该项研究提示,PM2.5暴露导致了大鼠肺组织发生氧化应激损伤和炎症反应。TNF-α是激活炎症介质级联反应的主要初级炎症介质,可通过促进白细胞黏附激活补体系统激活中性粒细胞和单核巨噬细胞的释放反应,促进凝血及诱导其他炎症细胞因子的分泌增加而引起肺组织损伤[36-37]。杨凌等[38]采用气管滴注方式对小鼠进行PM2.5染毒,染毒剂量为1.5,7.5和15 mg·kg-1,染毒频率为每周2次,连续染毒3个月,末次暴露24 h后,收集BALF并测定其中细胞因子IL-6,IL-17,IL-10和转化生长因子β(transforming growth factor-β,TGF-β)的含量。结果 发现,各染毒组小鼠BALF中IL-6及TGF-β含量呈剂量-效应增加趋势;7.5和15 mg·kg-1组小鼠BALF中IL-17显著升高,IL-10显著降低,肺组织中辅助性T细胞17(Th17)特异性转录因子ROR-γt mRNA表达随染毒剂量的增加而升高,而调节性T细胞(T regulatory cell,Treg)特异性转录因子Foxp3 mRNA表达则随染毒剂量的增加呈降低趋势。表明PM2.5可引起小鼠肺部持续的炎症反应和免疫损伤,并导致Th17/Treg细胞失衡及其相关细胞因子分泌的改变。李峰等[39]通过气管滴注方法研究不同浓度PM2.5(7.5,15和30 mg·kg-1)对运动大鼠行为学及不同器官的毒性作用,发现暴露组大鼠的肺组织内谷胱甘肽含量下降,活性氧含量显著上升,表明急性PM2.5暴露可对大鼠肺等器官的抗氧化指标发生改变,影响机体的运动能力,造成组织损伤。
3.1 细胞信号通路的改变
有研究发现,PM2.5可通过氧化应激调节上皮细胞JAK/STAT信号通路和IL-6等相关细胞因子的产生,对支气管上皮细胞造成氧化损伤[40-41]。PM2.5暴露可激活Akt和NF-κB等细胞信号通路,增加炎症损伤相关炎症因子如IL-1α,IL-6和趋化因子IL-8等的表达增加,从而导致细胞炎症损伤及细胞凋亡[42-44]。郭翔等[45]比较不同地区大气中不同浓度PM2.5(1,10,50,100,200和300 mg·L-1)对大鼠肺泡巨噬细胞一氧化氮释放量的影响。结果 显示,4个城市中颗粒物浓度达到100 mg·L-1时,大鼠肺泡巨噬细胞的一氧化氮释放量普遍增加,说明PM2.5通过改变一氧化氮信号通路,增加肺泡巨噬细胞的活性氮释放而导致其氧化应激的产生。
3.2 细胞脂质过氧化损伤
PM2.5可通过氧化损伤和炎症反应对细胞产生毒性作用,而PM2.5本身的粒径大小、组成成分和来源等因素通过比较复杂的方式相互作用共同参与到这一过程中,粒径越小,比表面积越大,可富集到的有害物质就越多,造成的细胞毒性就越大[46]。PM2.5暴露对细胞的毒性作用还包括脂质过氧化损伤[47-48],细胞脂质堆积并导致细胞存活率下降可能是PM2.5细胞毒性的作用机制之一[49]。
3.3 细胞DNA损伤
PM2.5携带的某些有机成分,如多环芳烃在人体内的代谢产物二氢二醇环氧苯并芘〔(anti-7,8-dihydrodiol-9,10-epoxide benzo(a)pyrene,BPDE)〕可与DNA亲核位点鸟嘌呤外环氨基端共价结合,形成BPDE-DNA加合物,引起DNA损伤,诱导基因突变和细胞癌变。赵永东等[50]研究发现,机动车尾气排放的PM2.5可抑制EA.hy926细胞(人脐静脉内皮细胞和人肺腺癌细胞A549融合的细胞)增殖并改变细胞的DNA甲基化率,并对EA.hy926细胞产生诱导凋亡作用。Meng等[51]研究沙尘暴中PM2.5对大鼠肺泡巨噬细胞DNA的损伤,发现正常天气和沙尘暴中的PM2.5均能对细胞DNA造成损伤,其中有机化合物和不溶性颗粒可能是主要原因。由于沙尘暴中的PM2.5浓度远高于正常天气中的PM2.5,所以沙尘暴中的PM2.5对DNA的毒性远大于正常天气中的PM2.5对细胞产生的毒性。细胞活性氧的产生和P53依赖性信号通路介导的DNA链断裂可能是PM2.5引起的细胞基因突变和凋亡的重要机制[52-53]。
3.4 细胞免疫损伤
PM2.5可作用于免疫系统,促进免疫细胞分泌细胞因子,通过调节细胞因子的分泌从而参与免疫应答[37,41-42],这些细胞因子相互作用或与免疫细胞相互作用,导致T淋巴细胞功能紊乱,引起Th1/Th2的比例失调,启动免疫应答,引发炎症反应,最终导致组织损伤。Fossati等[54]分析了PM2.5相关微RNA(microRNA,miRNA)靶基因。结果 表明,PM2.5与miR-9,miR-21,miR-126,miR-135a,miR-146a,miR-155和miR-222的表达呈负相关。PM2.5降低了这些miRNA的表达,导致免疫相关信号调节通路异常,最终使细胞免疫损伤。
3.5 细胞自噬和凋亡
PM2.5能引起细胞氧化应激反应,增加细胞内活性氧生成水平,并激活多种细胞凋亡途径和自噬相关蛋白的表达,抑制细胞存活,引发细胞自噬[55-56]。PM2.5可诱导细胞的炎症反应及水通道蛋白5 mRNA的表达,降低细胞活性,促进细胞凋亡[57]。PM2.5还可导致细胞线粒体功能损伤,引起细胞能量代谢异常,最终导致细胞凋亡[58]。
目前,国内外主要通过人群流行病学、体外细胞培养和动物实验等方法对PM2.5的毒性机制进行研究,取得了一定的进展。动物实验主要研究PM2.5对呼吸系统的损伤效应,包括气道损伤,引发哮喘和肺组织等器官损伤等。细胞实验主要利用呼吸系统相关的细胞研究PM2.5对细胞损伤的分子生物学机制,氧化应激和炎症相关因子激活可能是PM2.5细胞毒性作用机制之一,各种类型的DNA损伤和免疫损伤以及细胞自噬和凋亡也被部分学者认为是PM2.5导致的损伤机制之一。在体内实验和体外实验中,氧化应激和炎症反应损伤都是PM2.5致呼吸系统损伤的重要机制,通过对损伤机制的深入研究,有助于诊治并预防PM2.5引起的呼吸系统损伤,探索更有效的防治PM2.5危害的方法和技术。
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Atmospheric fine particles induce oxidatives stress and inflammatory reaction in respiratory systems:research progress
LU Kui-kui,LING Min,BIAN Qian
(Jiangsu Provincial Center for Disease Prevention and Control,Nanjing 210009,China)
Fine particles,less than 2.5 micrometer in diameter(PM2.5),are the main components of inhalable particles.Because of their relatively small size and large surface area,PM2.5can absorb and retain chemicals,bacteria,viruses and other toxic substances,penetrate deeply into the respiratory tract and easily reach the alveolar ducts,exerting adverse effects on the lungs.PM2.5can also be absorbed into the bloodstream through alveolar capillaries,causing serious damage to human health. The biological effects produced by PM2.5are frequently attributed to the oxidative stress induced by intracellular reactive oxygen species alterations and abnormal release of inflammatory mediators closelyinvolved in the development of lung diseases.This review discusses the research advances in relationships between PM2.5exposure and inflammatory responses and oxidative stress based on experimental researches,in vivo and in vitro studies.Recent epidemiologic investigations have shown associations between increased incidence of respiratory diseases and lung cancer from exposure to low levels of various forms of respirable fibers and particulate matter.In vivo experiments have disclosed the association between PM2.5exposure and the exacerbation of asthma,bronchitis,chronic obstructive pulmonary disease,and other lung damages.Cell damage mechanisms mainly include alterations of cell signaling pathways,DNA damage,immune injury,autophagy and apoptosis.
air pollutants;oxidative stress;inflammation
The project supported by Natural Science Foundation of Jiangsu Province(BK20161585)
BIAN Qian,E-mail:bianqian@jscdc.cn
R994.6
A
1000-3002-(2017)06-0682-07
10.3867/j.issn.1000-3002.2017.06.027
2017-03-17接受日期:2017-06-10)
江苏省自然科学基金(BK20161585)
鹿奎奎,男,助理实验师,主要从事吸入毒理学研究,E-mail:lukuikui@126.com
卞倩,E-mail:bianqian@jscdc.cn