刘飞飞
(山东大学外国语学院,济南 250100)
态度隐喻
刘飞飞
(山东大学外国语学院,济南 250100)
评价理论是系统功能语言学的新发展,包括态度、介入、级差三个子系统。本文以态度子系统为基础,从词汇隐喻、上下文语境、连接性附加语三方面讨论了态度的间接实现方式——态度隐喻。态度隐喻关注在某种句式或上下文语境中,概念意义和语篇意义表达态度的功能,不涉及词汇语法层内部的跨范畴映射。
评价理论;态度;隐喻;态度隐喻
隐喻作为一种修辞手段,历来是修辞学界研究的重点。古希腊哲学家亚里士多德强调隐喻在诗歌创作以及在修辞学中的重要作用,从词汇层面研究隐喻现象。随着认知语言学的兴起,隐喻研究发生了根本性变化。认知语言学家认为,隐喻不仅是一种修辞手段,也是人们认识世界的思维方式,人们赖以思维和行动的一般概念系统,从根本上讲都是隐喻的(Lakoff George and Mark Johnson,1980)。以韩礼德为代表的系统功能语言学家研究隐喻在词汇语法层的表现形式。语法隐喻指不同语法功能的词组之间、词组与小句之间、词组与复句之间或小句与复句之间的级转移。
马丁和怀特(Martin,J.R.and White,2005)讨论了用态度词(attitudinal lexis)体现态度意义,并将这种形式称为铭刻的态度(inscribed attitude),本文称为态度一致式。他们指出,“即使没有态度词,无法直接感知,仅仅选择概念意义也可以引发评价。”(Martin,J.R.and White,2005:62)并将这种评价称为引发的态度。本文把通过概念意义和语篇意义引发的评价称为态度隐喻。马伟林(2009)在其博士论文中,把这种现象称为隐性评价。
态度隐喻指没有态度词的情况下,评价主体根据一定的标准,对人类行为、文本/过程及现象做出的情感反应和评判。态度隐喻不同于语法隐喻,它是由概念意义或者语篇意义引发的,不涉及各个语法域之间的跨范畴映射。
本文从词汇隐喻、上下文语境、连接性附加语三方面讨论态度隐喻在语篇中的实现方式。
词汇隐喻本身作为一种隐喻现象,在语篇中可以激发一种态度,是态度隐喻的实现方式之一。
(1)And how they fenced us in like sheep.
(Martin,J.R.and White,2005:65)
例(1)中,“they”指“当权者”,“us”指“普通群众”。单从词汇方面看,作者并没有明确指出当权者对群众的态度以及群众对当权者的态度。通过语义分析,“羊群(sheep)”指代“普通群众(us)”,把“普通群众”比作“羊群”暗示了他们有许多相似点。“把我们像羊一样围(fenced)起来”(fenced us like sheep)说明“当权者”把“群众”作为“交易的商品,货物”,并非把他们作为独立的、自由的个体,从而体现了当权者惨不人道,普通群众孤苦无助的社会现实。对当权者的憎恨,以及对普通群众的同情便跃然纸上。
(2)There are rare instances when justice almost ceases to be an abstract concept.Reward or punishment are meted out quite independence of human interference.At such times,justice acts like a living force.When we use a phrase like‘it serves him right’,we are,in part,admitting that a certain set of circumstances has enabled justice to act of its own accord.
(亚历山大(Alexander,L.G.),何其莘,2007)
例(2)中,“justice”指无生命的抽象概念,其含义本身没有感情色彩。“living force”指“有生命的力量”,本身也没有情感意义。把“justice”比作“living force”,把“无生命的”和“有生命的”放在一起,暗示了两者具有某些相似点,具有可比性,这样便给“justice”赋予了活力、生命力。无生命的“justice”变成有生命的“living force”,主动行使其职责,预设了对“justice”的肯定和赞扬。上文中“ceases to be an abstract concept”,“independence of human interference”以及“act of its own accord”都增强了这一态度意义。
评价系统属于人际元功能,人际意义在语篇中呈韵律状分布。苗兴伟和廖美珍(2007)探讨了隐喻在语篇形成过程中的建构功能,将隐喻研究由词、句子提高到语篇层面。隐喻是组织和建构语篇的重要手段,发挥积极作用。另一方面,语篇中没有态度词,只分析情感意义在语篇中的韵律状发展,也可以激发态度意义,实现态度隐喻。
Both European and Aboriginal residents of Yuendumu took considerable pleasure and pride in the achievement1.Visitors to the community were equally enthusiastic,and word about these remarkable paintings began to spread.My own response was to see this accomplishment as a major one for contemporary international art as well as an achievement2in indigenous culture.For me,these doors seemed to strike a chord with issues and images that were being negotiated in the art galleries of Sydney,Paris and New York.
(ichaels 1987:135,转自 Martin,J.R.and White,2005:65)
上例中,不考虑上下文语境因素,achievement,accomplishment是非态度词。“achievement”1仅仅是动词“achieve”的名词化形式,没有任何态度意义。通过语义分析,remarkable,major等态度词确定了文章的感情基调,是一种积极的评价。所以,achievement2不仅仅是一种名词化形式,它指通过努力实现的一种结果,是对努力过程的肯定,是一种积极的评价,因此具有态度意义。
(3)When reports came into London Zoo that a wild1puma had been spotted forty-five miles south of London,they were not taken seriously.……It immediately ran away when she saw it,and experts confirmed that a puma will not attack a human being unless it is cornered.……Whenever it went,it left behind it a trail of dead deer and small animals like rabbits.……Several people complained of‘cat-like noises’at night and a businessman on a fishing trip saw the puma up a tree.……As no puma had been reported missing from any zoo in the country,this one must have been in the possession of a private collector and somehow managed to escape.The hunt went on for several weeks,but the puma was not caught.It is disturbing to think that a dangerous wild2animal is still at large in the quite countryside.
(亚历山大(Alexander,L.G.),何其莘,2007)
例(3)中,wild出现了两次,但态度意义不同。“wild1”起限定作用,指文中谈到的美洲狮是在野外发现的,并没有涉及到该美洲狮是野生的,还是从动物园或私人家庭中逃出来的。“It immediately ran away when she saw it,and experts confirmed that a puma will not attack a human being unless it is cornered.”中,“it”指谈到的美洲狮,该句预设了“It(The puma) will attack a human being if it(the puma)is cornered.”,说明美洲狮是危险的。“it left behind it a trail of dead deer and small animals like rabbits.”,“‘cat-like noises’at night”,“dangerous”都增强了该语义内涵。“As no puma had been reported missing from any zoo in the country,this one must have been in the possession of a private collector and somehow managed to escape.”指出,该美洲狮并非动物园所有,高值情态词“must”仅仅表明美洲狮来自个体收藏者的可能性很大,但并不确定。所以,“wild2”不仅起限定作用,也带有态度意义,对美洲狮进行否定评价,其后用普通名词“animal”泛指,而不再用“puma”特指在野外发现的这一生物,增强了该否定意义。
例(3)中,wild词性并没有变化,不涉及跨范畴映射,但其上下文语境不同,所以态度意义发生了变化。通过上下文语境引发了对美洲狮的否定评价。
(4)Frank gently lifted the crockery out of the box and suddenly noticed a miniature painting1at the bottom of the packing case.As its composition and line reminded him of an Italian painting2he knew well,he decided to buy it.Glancing at it briefly,the dealer told him that it was worth£50.Frank could hardly conceal his excitement,for he knew that he had made a real discovery.The tiny painting3proved to be an unknown masterpiece by Correggio and was worth hundreds of thousands of pounds.
(亚历山大(Alexander,L.G.),何其莘,2007)
上例中,“painting1”指货箱中的画,作者,Frank以及 dealer都没有对画的好坏做出任何评价。“painting2”指的是Frank熟悉的意大利画,并非眼前的这张画,Frank对“painting2”有自己的评价:一副有名的画。“painting3”与“painting1”的所指相同,但态度意义不同。“painting3”是柯勒乔(Correggio)未被发现的杰作,价值几十万英镑,读者,Frank对此作出肯定评价。例(4)以“painting2”为支点,借助态度词excitement,real discovery,使“painting1”和“painting3”有明显的情感过渡,态度成分逐渐增加。除此之外,文化语境也增强了该态度意义。评价者只有了解柯勒乔是有名的画家,其作品非常有名之后,才会对“painting3”做出肯定评价。如若柯勒乔是一名普通画家,或者读者,Frank不知道柯勒乔是谁的话,态度意义便不同了。
连接性附加语体现语篇功能,与其他语篇成分形成一种语境化关系。有些连接性附加语,如however,though,even though,although,but等,表示与通常的期待相反,用一个命题取代或反对另一个有可能在此地出现的命题,这便蕴含了一种情感成分。
(5)This is another book by an American who writes about the pleasures and pains of owning a house in France.Barry,however,is something of an exception because,unlike other authors in this genre,she does not actually live in her house in France.
(Martin,J.R.and White,2005:66)由第一句可知,该书作者描述了在法国拥有房子的快乐和烦恼。第二句的主位成分Barry是旧信息,她正是该书的作者,按照语篇发展的一般规律,述位成分应该是对她的一般陈述。但是,“however”预设了述位提供的语义信息与上句的语义内涵不同,即使述位部分没有态度词,也可以通过上句的情感意义推测述位要表达的内容。Barry在她的书中并没有描写在法国拥有房子的快乐和烦恼,与其他同类作品不同,她是个特例,暗含了评论家对她的否定评价。
(6)Though he kept throwing up his arms in despair,he readily accepted the£5 I gave him.I felt especially pleased with my wonderful bargain——until I got back to the ship.No matter how hard I tried,it was impossible to fill his beautiful pen with ink and to this day it has never written a single word!
(亚历山大(Alexander,L.G.),何其莘,2007)
由“he kept throwing up his arms in despair”可知,读者并不满意我给的价格,但是迫于要出售自己的商品,所以不得不低价卖给我,由此可以猜测出卖者在收下我付的钱时,应该是不情愿地或者一直在抱怨。但是,下文中指出“he readily accepted the£5 I gave him”,与通常的期待相反。事实上,卖者是很高兴能以5英镑卖给我这支笔的,所以卖者并非真的不情愿,而是有点满意、高兴。这种真实情感并非由态度词体现,而是通过“though”实现概念意义的转变。所以,语篇意义引发了评价。
“No matter how hard I tried,it was impossible to fill his beautiful pen with ink and to this day it has never written a single word!”表明这支笔是赝品,根本就没法用,不值5英镑,进一步强调了卖者当时的满意之情。
本文结合评价理论,讨论了态度的间接实现方式——态度隐喻。通过态度词体现态度意义是一致式;没有态度词,评价主体根据一定的标准,对人类行为、文本/过程及现象作出的情感反应和评判称为态度隐喻。态度隐喻不涉及各个语法域之间的跨范畴映射,它主要强调根据上下文语境对意义的不同解读,以及态度意义的产生和发展。在语篇中,态度隐喻主要是通过词汇隐喻、上下文语境、连接性附加语等方式实现。
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(责任编辑:王法昌)
Attitudinal Metaphor
LIU Fei-fei
(School of Foreign Languages,Shandong University,Ji’nan 250111)
Appraisal System is the new development of Systemic Functional Linguistics.It includes three subsystems:attitude,engagement and graduation.This article talks about the indirect realization of attitude—Attitudinal Metaphor—from three aspects:lexical metaphor,co-text and conjunctive adjuncts.Attitudinal Metaphor concerns the attitudinal orientation expressed by Ideational meaning and Textual meaning.
appraisal System;Attitude;metaphor;attitudinal metaphor
2011-07-25
刘飞飞(1986-),女,山东邹平人,山东大学外国语学院2009级硕士研究生。
H314 文献标志码:A 文章编号:1009-2080(2011)05-0086-04