魏熙胤 臧凤琳 孙保存
·国家基金研究进展综述·
TFPI-2对恶性肿瘤细胞增殖凋亡 侵袭转移调控作用的研究进展*
魏熙胤①臧凤琳②孙保存②
组织因子途径抑制物-2(tissue factor pathway inhibitor-2,TFPI-2)是具有库尼(Kunitz)结构域的丝氨酸蛋白酶抑制剂。新近发现,TFPI-2在恶性肿瘤中表达降低,并与肿瘤转移、侵袭等恶性生物学行为密切相关。该分子表达的分子调控机制包括启动子CpG岛超甲基化、ERK1/2信号途径、JNK信号途径等。TFPI-2的主要功能体现在维持肿瘤微环境的稳定性,抑制肿瘤细胞的生长、侵袭和转移。目前认为,TFPI-2在调节细胞增殖、凋亡以及血管生成拟态方面也发挥重要作用。本文就TFPI-2在肿瘤中的表达及调控机制、细胞凋亡、血管生成中作用进行综述,为其在肿瘤的预防、诊断及基因治疗中开展深入研究提供理论基础。
TFPI-2 恶性肿瘤 凋亡 转移 血管生成
组织因子途径抑制物(tissue factor pathway inhibitor,TFPI)是机体生理性抗凝剂,它通过抑制组织活性因子Ⅶ、X的活化调控外源性凝血的起始阶段。TFPI蛋白分为TFPI-1、TFPI-2两种亚型,其中TFPI-2又称胎盘蛋白-5,是一种含有Kunitz型结构域的、基质相关丝氨酸蛋白酶抑制物。近年来发现,TFPI-2能够强烈抑制纤维蛋白溶解酶、胰蛋白酶、血浆激肽释放酶、基质金属蛋白酶(matrix metallopro-teinases,MMPs)等多种细胞外蛋白酶的活性,在血管新生、动脉粥样硬化、肿瘤发生及转移等多种病理生理过程中发挥重要作用。本文就TFPI-2在恶性肿瘤中的表达及调控、TFPI-2对增殖凋亡的调节以及对肿瘤侵袭转移的作用机制分述如下。
由肿瘤细胞分泌的多种蛋白酶参与降解细胞外基质(extracellular matrix,ECM)和基底膜是肿瘤发生浸润转移的重要步骤。近年来研究发现,TFPI-2在神经胶质瘤、肝癌、胰腺癌等多种肿瘤中表达降低或缺失,并能够抑制肿瘤侵袭和转移[1-3]。但TFPI-2在肿瘤中的表达并不一致,如TFPI-2在乳腺癌和结肠癌组织中的表达水平相对较高,故需要更多的后续实验加以深入研究[4]。
TFPI-2在大多数肿瘤中表达降低,如:在体外培养的9株高级别胶质瘤细胞系中,有5株存在TFPI-2表达缺失;经腺病毒介导敲除TFPI-2基因后,曾表达TFPI-2的胶质瘤细胞出现明显的增殖、侵袭和转移的恶性生物学行为,且出现MMP-1和MMP-2蛋白表达下降[1]。此外,TFPI-2在高、中分化胃癌组中的表达水平高于低分化组,并随肿瘤TNM分期的进展而降低,具有远处转移的患者TFPI-2的表达低于无远处转移者,TFPI-2高表达组患者预后比中、低表达组好[5]。随着鼻黏膜从正常到良性外翻性乳头状瘤再到恶性鳞状细胞癌的进展,TFPI-2表达量逐渐减少,且TFPI-2表达与微血管密度呈负相关[6]。Tang等[3]也发现,TFPI-2能够抑制体外培养的胰腺癌细胞系和荷瘤小鼠体内肿瘤的侵袭和转移,也是胰腺癌患者独立的预后危险因素。上述研究均表明,TFPI-2是具有抑制肿瘤浸润、转移功能的抑癌基因,在恶性肿瘤中表达降低或缺失。
但Sierko等[4]在结肠癌和乳腺癌中却观察到不一致的结果:约70%(45/66)的结肠癌和全部乳腺癌(21例)中均存在TFPI-2蛋白和mRNA的高表达,且TFPI-2在具有淋巴结转移的乳腺癌患者中含量更高。造成这种不一致现象的原因可能包括:免疫组织化学技术选用的抗体不同、抗原修复方法不同以及样本量大小不同等。此外,Kempaiah等[7]的研究结果似乎提供了更为合理的解释:mRNA水平的异常剪接形成仅含有外显子2和5,并缺少5'和3'非翻译区的异常TFPI-2转录本,该异常cDNA全长约289 bp,远低于正常的TFPI-2分子(662 bp),因此在肝细胞癌、膀胱癌、胰腺癌、结肠癌和纤维母细胞瘤等肿瘤中检测到高表达的TFPI-2 mRNA很可能是上述异常转录本。TFPI-2蛋白表达的差异目前尚无明确的实验结果,尚需要更多深入的研究进一步加以分析和评价。
TFPI-2基因定位于7q22区域,全长约7 kb,5'非编码区含有多个调控基因表达的顺式作用元件,在转录起始位点上游-284、-179和-126处分别有3个特异性β1糖蛋白结合位点,这些结构在TFPI-2转录、翻译过程中起到重要作用[8]。文献报道,肿瘤组织中TFPI-2基因沉默的主要原因之一是由于启动子CpG岛的超甲基化。在非小细胞肺癌中发现,大约30%的病例存在TFPI-2启动子甲基化,且TFPI-2降表达和甲基化更多出现在Ⅲ、Ⅳ期及发生淋巴结转移的患者[9]。在对弥漫大B淋巴瘤的研究中也观察到,实验组中77%出现TFPI-2启动子甲基化,显著高于对照组,且23个启动子位点中有19个出现异常甲基化[10]。此外,在小鼠胚胎干细胞内,逆转录转座子LINE-1的异常活化抑制组蛋白修饰,并引发TFPI-2无意义转录,同样造成肿瘤细胞内的TFPI-2基因沉默[11]。
另有研究报道,血管内皮细胞生长因子(vascular endothelial growth factor,VEGF)、MAPK激酶(mitogen activated protein kinase kinase,MKK)、肿瘤坏死因子α(tumor necrosis factor-α,TNF-α)等多种因子均参与了TFPI-2表达的调节[12]。在血管内皮细胞中VEGF诱导高表达TFPI-2,并具有时间和剂量依赖性,TFPI-2反过来又阻断VEGF诱导的细胞外信号调节蛋白激酶1/2(extracellular signal regulated kinase 1/ 2,ERK1/2)活化,提示VEGF与TFPI-2之间可能存在负反馈的调节机制[7]。MKK-7能够激活C-Jun氨基端激酶(C-Jun N-terminal kinase,JNK)并抑制细胞生长,在TFPI-2启动子区域含有核因子活化蛋白(activator protein-1,AP-1)结合位点,该位点恰好是JNK的下游作用底物,提示AP-I依赖性TFPI-2表达上调与MKK7/JNK途径密切相关[13]。
既往研究认为TFPI-2的主要生物学功能是抑制包括MMPs在内的多种蛋白酶活性,阻断ECM重塑,抑制肿瘤细胞的侵袭和转移。近年来研究发现,TFPI-2还具有抑制细胞增殖、诱导细胞凋亡等作用,同样影响着肿瘤的发生发展。在对新生儿主动脉平滑肌细胞的研究中,发现重组的TFPI凭借蛋白的C末端结构域抑制细胞生长[14]。在血管内皮细胞中,TFPI-2能够通过丝/苏氨酸蛋白激酶(Akt)和ERK1/2阻断VEGF诱导的细胞增生,但仅含第一个Kunitz型结构域的重组蛋白不具备此功能[12]。经TFPI-2处理视网膜色素上皮细胞后,与细胞增殖相关的Ras/Raf/ MAPK信号通路、转录因子E2F3以及“分子警察”p53均发生相应的改变以阻断细胞进入分裂周期[15]。在对胰腺癌的研究中,也观察到外源性导入TFPI-2基因后,细胞增殖能力明显下降[3]。在非小细胞肺癌中,随着去甲基化试剂(5-Aza-CdR)浓度的逐渐升高,TFPI-2 mRNA和蛋白表达逐渐升高,而且细胞出现了明显的G0/G1期阻滞[16]。
TFPI-2对细胞增殖的阻滞往往伴随着对凋亡诱导敏感性的增强。经腺病毒转染胶质瘤细胞高表达TFPI-2后,发现细胞内凋亡级联蛋白caspase-9和caspase-3活性增强,提示TFPI-2可能通过内、外源性途径诱导肿瘤细胞凋亡[17]。在纤维肉瘤细胞中,全长TFPI-2蛋白、R24K/KD1突变体和R24Q/KD1突变体均可诱导细胞凋亡,三者对凋亡的诱导率分别为39%、69%和18%[18]。TFPI-2对凋亡的促进作用通过多种机制实现,主要包括:过表达的TFPI-2集中分布于胞膜附近并上调TNF-R、Fas受体的表达,促进caspase-3、caspase-9相互作用及酶切水解,增加线粒体膜通透性,释放细胞色素C,活化核纤层蛋白A(Lamin A)、聚腺苷二磷酸-核糖聚合酶(poly-ADP-ribose polymerase,PARP)等执行分子,从而在凋亡启动、传递和执行阶段均起到了促进作用[19-20];TFPI-2抑制ECM中的纤溶酶及MMP-3、MMP-7活性,保护FasL配体细胞外结构域的完整性,并与VEGF相互协同,激活促凋亡蛋白Bax表达,抑制抗凋亡蛋白Bcl-2、XIAP(X-linked inhibitor of apoptosis protein)活性,导致细胞凋亡增加[12,21]。
作为广谱蛋白酶抑制物,TFPI-2能够抑制大多数含有丝氨酸位点的蛋白酶,从而参与ECM的重塑,在血管生成及肿瘤细胞侵袭转移等一系列生理、病理过程中扮演重要角色。在胶质瘤、纤维肉瘤、恶性脑膜瘤中,发现TFPI-2通过抑制新生血管的形成来降低其对周围组织的侵袭及远处转移能力。体外将转染重组rAAV-TFPI-2的胶质瘤SNB19细胞与毛细血管内皮细胞HMEC共培养,微血管定量分析发现rAAV-TFPI-2对毛细血管网状结构形成的抑制率可达85%;进一步裸鼠体内实验证实,rAAV-TFPI-2在已形成的血管床上可100%抑制新生毛细血管的形成[22]。
TFPI-2抑制肿瘤血管生成的主要机制包括:1)拮抗组织因子(tissue factor,TF)诱导血管生成。肿瘤细胞及血管内皮细胞高表达TF,并通过蛋白酶激活的受体-2(protease activated receptor 2,PAR-2)信号通路促进血管生成。当TFPI-2表达水平升高时,TF受到拮抗,PAR-2信号转导被阻滞[23];2)在较高浓度(约20 nM)下,抑制内皮细胞的迁移和管道形成[24];3)利用氨基末端自由氨基上的Zn活化位点,通过多价螯和作用与MMPs结合并抑制其与ECM的结合,降低对ECM的破坏作用[25]。
此外,TFPI-2对肿瘤血管生成拟态(vasculogenic mimicry,VM)也具有重要的调节作用。VM是指肿瘤细胞通过自身变形模仿血管壁结构,形成的能够输送血液的管腔。目前已证实在乳腺癌、胃癌、肾透明细胞癌、肝癌、腺泡横纹肌肉瘤等多种恶性肿瘤中存在,且具有VM结构的肿瘤血管转移早、复发率高、临床预后差[26]。在对恶性黑色素瘤的研究中,Ruf等[27]通过基因芯片发现肿瘤细胞能够形成血管样结构并高表达包括TFPI-2在内的血管内皮细胞相关基因,TFPI-2与三维培养基质相互作用可以诱导低度恶性黑色素瘤形成VM[27]。本课题组在前期工作中也观察到:在中、高分化胃癌中,TFPI-2通过负性调节内皮依赖性血管抑制肿瘤的浸润和转移;在低分化胃癌中,TFPI-2通过细胞外基质重塑促进VM的形成,有利于肿瘤的转移,提示TFPI-2在胃癌血管生成模式中很可能发挥着双向调控作用,对深入研究TFPI-2在肿瘤中的作用具有重要提示意义[5]。
TFPI-2通过诱导肿瘤细胞凋亡、抑制肿瘤新生血管形成、调节血管生成拟态等参与肿瘤发生发展、浸润转移的诸多环节,成为肿瘤诊断和治疗研究中的热点。在肿瘤治疗、肿瘤临床诊断、促进伤口愈合和动脉粥样硬化治疗等领域,以TFPI-2为靶向分子的研究正在进行。相信随着对TFPI-2信号调控机制和功能研究的日渐深入,TFPI-2在肿瘤的预防、诊断及基因治疗中将会产生更好的效果。
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(2014-08-07收稿)
(2014-10-14修回)
(本文编辑:郑莉)
Research progress on effects of TFPI-2 on proliferation,apoptosis,and metastasis of malignant tumors cells
Xiyin WEI,Fenglin ZANG,Baocun SUN
Baocun SUN;E-mail:baocunsun@126.com
Section of Public Laboratory and Department of Pathology,Tianjin Medical University Cancer Institute and Hospital,National Clinical Research Center of Cancer,Key Laboratory of Cancer Prevention and Therapy,Tianjin 300060,China.
This study was supported by grants from the Outstanding Young Scientist Program of the National Natural Science Foundation of China(No.81001020)and the Tianjin Municipal Bureau of Public Health Science Foundation(No.2010KZ70).
Tissue factor pathway inhibitor-2(TFPI-2),a member of the Kunitz-type family,is a broad-spectrum serine proteinase inhibitor.The expression of TFPI-2 is inversely related to increasing degree of malignancy,suggesting a role of TFPI-2 in the maintenance of tumor stability and inhibition of the growth of neoplasma.Aberrant methylation of TFPI-2 promoter cytosine-phosphorothioate-guanine(CpG)islands has been widely documented to be responsible for diminished expression of TFPI-2 mRNA and protein during cancer progression.TFPI-2 expression is significantly up-regulated by the ERK1/2 and JNK signaling pathways and modestly increased by VEGF,TNF-alpha,and fibroblast growth factor in time-and dose-dependent manners.TFPI-2 can maintain the stability of the tumor environment and inhibit invasiveness and growth of neoplasms.TFPI-2 has also been shown to regulate proliferation,apoptosis,and vasculogenic mimicry of tumor cells,which may contribute significantly to tumor growth inhibition.Restoration of TFPI-2 expression in tumor tissue inhibits tumor growth and metastasis,which creates a novel possibility of cancer patient treatment.This review focuses on the expression and the molecular regulation mechanisms of TFPI-2 in malignant tumors that control the functions of TFPI-2 in proliferation,apoptosis,and angiogenesis.Insight into these processes will improve our understanding of TFPI-2 and provide new approaches for rational treatment strategies.
TFPI-2,malignant tumor,apoptosis,metastasis,angiogenesis
10.3969/j.issn.1000-8179.20141336
①天津医科大学肿瘤医院肿瘤研究所公共实验室,国家肿瘤临床医学研究中心,天津市肿瘤防治重点实验室(天津市300060);②病理科
*本文课题受国家自然科学基金青年科学基金项目(编号81001020)和天津市卫生局科技基金项目(编号2010KZ70)资助
孙保存 baocunsun@126.com
魏熙胤 专业方向为流式细胞术应用。
E-mail:weixiyin@126.com