胡微蕾,徐青叶,唐 斌,王世贵
(杭州师范大学生命与环境科学学院,杭州 310036)
微孢子虫Microsporidia 是一类多样化的、广泛存在的专性细胞内寄生的原生生物,能感染从原生生物到人的几乎所有的动物(Winters and Faisal,2014),是许多经济昆虫、鱼类、兔类、皮毛动物、啮齿类的重要病原。超过600 多种的微孢子虫可以寄生在昆虫体内,通过侵染昆虫的中肠、马氏管、脂肪体、卵巢甚至神经,引起昆虫的流行病(Lee et al.,2010;Solter et al.,2012)。它们不仅在昆虫种群中水平传播,还能垂直传播,引起下一代的感染,影响昆虫的生殖健康和后代发育,是自然界中制约昆虫种群密度的重要因素之一(Dunn et al.,2001)。利用微孢子虫防治农业和林业害虫,可有效持续地控制害虫的种群密度,在害虫生物防治中占有重要的地位,是一种很有前途的防治方法与途径,在害虫的持续治理上具有重要意义。
微孢子虫属于原生动物亚界微孢子虫门微孢子纲微孢子虫目,是一类直径仅2μm-40μm 的营专性寄生生活的单细胞真核生物(向恒等,2014)。目前已报道的微孢子虫约170个属、种类超过1400种(Witter and Weiss,1999)。微孢子虫的寄主范围包括无脊椎动物和脊椎动物,特别是昆虫和鱼类(Aurrecoechea et al.,2011;Moretto et al.,2012),其中有14种微孢子虫可以感染人类,并导致严重的免疫缺陷症状(Didier and Weiss,2006)。
大多数微孢子虫主要寄生于昆虫,仅有少数微孢子虫寄生于鱼类和哺乳动物(Senderskiy et al.,2014)。研究表明,微孢子虫可侵染400种以上的昆虫,几乎覆盖了整个昆虫纲中各个目的昆虫(汪方炜和鲁兴萌,2003),且从卵到成虫的任何一个发育阶段的昆虫都有可能受微孢子虫的感染(蒲蜇龙,1994),某些昆虫还受到多种微孢子虫的寄生(冉红凡等,2002)。
一种微孢子虫可侵染同一科的数种昆虫,如蝗虫微孢子虫可侵染东亚飞蝗Locusta migratoria、毛足棒角蝗 Dasyhippus barbipes、白边痂蝗Bryodema luctuosum luctuosum、亚洲小车蝗Oedaleus asiaticus、宽须蚁蝗Myrmeleotettix palpalis、红翅皱膝蝗Angaracris rhodopa 和鼓翅皱膝蝗Angaracris barabensis(冉红凡等,2002),但也有一些种类的微孢子虫可侵染数科甚至数目的昆虫,如榆叶甲微孢子虫Nosema aenescens sp.nov.不但可侵染鞘翅目的榆萤叶甲Pyrrhalta aenescens,还可以侵染鳞翅目的亚洲玉米螟Ostrinia furnacalis 和直翅目的东亚飞蝗L.migratoria(问锦曾和黄虹,1995)。
微孢子虫通常以成熟的孢子存在于自然界中,被昆虫取食后在寄主消化道内发芽(温发园等,2005)。其侵染过程可分为两步:首先,孢子在内部压力增高时被活化,在此压力下,孢内的极丝快速外翻弹出。极丝外翻时,极丝蛋白PTP3 不断地聚合生产并包裹于极丝外,同时极膜层进入中空的极丝,后极泡膨大,不断产生的压力将极膜层和核压入极管中,使孢原质通过中空的极丝注入寄主细胞,此过程亦称为孢子发芽(Moretto et al.,2012)。其次,完成萌发后,极丝穿过寄主肠道的围食膜,刺进肠壁细胞,紧接着孢质沿着极丝管腔被压出。这样,极丝像一根接种针,将孢质注入寄主细胞内,从而完成整个侵染过程(Delbac and Polonais,2008)。
不同种类的微孢子虫往往会侵染寄主的不同器官:蝗虫微孢子虫主要侵染蝗虫的脂肪体(Henry and Oma,1981);玉米螟微孢子虫Nosema furnacalis 主要侵染玉米螟的马氏管、神经节、消化道和卵巢(问锦曾,1965);甜菜夜蛾Spodoptera exigua 微孢子虫主要侵染其脂肪体、马氏管和中肠(陈广文等,1992);有少数种类侵染寄主的神经节(Franzen,2005),如微孢子虫Nosema mesnili 可侵入斜纹夜蛾Spodoptera litura 幼虫神经节外层,导致幼虫急性瘫痪(范秀华等,2000)。
对其感染后超微结构的研究结果表明,微孢子虫的致病机理主要是由于微孢子虫在寄主细胞中大量增殖、堆积和机械挤压作用,使细胞内的内质网、线粒体、细胞核等细胞器受到严重破坏,细胞的代谢功能严重受损,最后导致细胞破碎死亡。这一过程将逐渐扩大至寄主的整个组织或整个器官,使这些组织或器官功能丧失,从而导致寄主死亡(Kermani et al.,2013)。昆虫感染后发病进程较为缓慢,其中一部分幼虫染病后,可一直发育到成虫,并能产卵,同时经卵把微孢子虫传至下一代(Campbell et al.,2007)。
昆虫微孢子虫病的传播有垂直传播和水平传播两种途径(Dunn and Smith,2001)。水平传播的主要方式是经口感染。如欧洲玉米螟微孢子虫N.pyrausta 在玉米螟种群内的水平传播是经由被感染幼虫污染的玉米茎进行的,幼虫排泄物中的孢子和被取食污染的蛀孔是主要的污染源(Andreadis,1987)。高的宿主密度、长的幼虫发育历期及低的低龄幼虫死亡率均有利于水平传播的进行(Raina et al.,1995)。
垂直传播的主要方式是经卵感染(汪方炜和鲁兴萌,2003)。在垂直传播中,微孢子可能侵染卵母细胞,随卵黄物质通过内吞作用进入雌成虫的卵而传给下一代,使下一代幼虫受到侵染(Huo et al.,2014)。如欧洲玉米螟微孢子虫孢子侵染玉米螟幼虫卵巢组织的上皮层和基质细胞,有时生殖细胞也受到侵染。孢子存留在被侵染组织中,至幼虫羽化为成虫后侵入成虫的生殖器官中,并侵染营养细胞和卵母细胞,这就导致了经卵传染给下一代的垂直传播(冉红凡等,2002)。经研究证明,被蝗虫微孢子虫侵染的非洲飞蝗也可以经卵把孢子传给后代,至少可以传染14 代(石旺鹏等,2003)。垂直传播的作用是多变的(Dunn et al.,2001),有时候被认为是水平传播的补充,别的地方则被看成是两个替换选项之一,但单一的垂直传播也有报道(Terry et al.,1999)。
昆虫微孢子虫可寄生于任何发育阶段的昆虫。受感染昆虫的病理学表现一般为慢性和亚致死病变,随着微孢子虫在体内的增殖,会表现出一系列显著的组织病变以及异常的发育和行为特征(阎亮亮,2007;Selman and Corradi,2011)。微孢子虫的各个发育时期都不具有线粒体,其营寄生生活的营养来源完全依赖于寄主细胞的线粒体来供给(Katinka et al.,2001)。因此,微孢子虫可以导致寄主细胞的细胞核和胞质之间正常的代谢作用被破坏,掠夺其养分、分泌蛋白酶溶解寄主细胞内容物、机械破坏寄主细胞完整性。随着破坏作用的逐渐扩大和加剧,导致寄主组织和器官丧失功能,寄主昆虫死亡。家蚕Bombyx mori 等昆虫感染微孢子虫后,体内某些与营养生理和泌丝生理密切相关的物质(如碱性磷酸酶、谷丙转氨酶、过氧化物酶、海藻糖酶、蛋白质、糖类等)的活性或含量会发生显著变化(汪方炜和鲁兴萌,2003)。
微孢子虫拥有广泛的酶和调节蛋白,可以分泌到感染细胞中,从而从细胞和分子层次控制寄主的代谢过程(Senderskiy et al.,2014),并且绝大多数微孢子虫可以直接接触感染寄主细胞质。微孢子虫的基因组测序表明:(1)微孢子虫可以控制寄主的基因调节(Tsaousis et al.,2008;Cornman et al.,2009;Keeling et al.,2010);(2)微孢子虫利用宿主的代谢系统可以获得特殊的转运蛋白(Cuomo et al.,2012);(3)预测信号肽负责分泌的蛋白可能影响了微孢子虫寄主细胞(Scanlon et al.,1999;Campbell et al.,2013)。微孢子虫可能像其他细胞内寄生虫一样,通过某种机制抑制在感染寄主细胞中的凋亡通路(Dussaubat et al.,2012)。研究表明微孢子虫可以控制寄主的基因调节和代谢过程,从而影响寄主的免疫健康(Moretto et al.,2012)。
内寄生的微孢子虫可以侵染昆虫的卵巢,影响寄主昆虫脂肪体合成卵黄原蛋白的能力,从而影响昆虫的生殖健康,削弱其繁殖能力(Huo et al.,2014),如欧洲玉米螟微孢子虫的孢子可以侵染玉米螟成虫的生殖器官,侵染营养细胞和卵母细胞(Khurad et al.,1991);而蝗虫微孢子虫的孢子甚至可严重感染卵巢管周围的脂肪体(张龙和周海鹰,1995)。感染微孢子后的蝗虫脂肪体合成卵黄原蛋白(vitellogenin,Vg)能力明显下降,直接影响释放到血淋巴中的Vg 含量严重不足,最终使得卵母细胞无法从血淋巴中摄取足量Vg,导致整个卵巢发育严重不良,卵黄蛋白(vitellin,Vt)含量极低(陈建新等,2002)。蝗虫微孢子虫的寄生,可导致感病蝗虫脂肪物质的大量消耗(陈建新等,2000;2002)。脂肪体合成Vg 的场所及其功能一旦被破坏,会直接导致感病蝗虫繁殖能力的削弱甚至丧失(张龙和周海鹰,1995)。
微孢子虫的感染常导致雌虫繁殖力降低,未受精卵增加,甚至可能改变昆虫种群的性比例,还会干扰寄主昆虫的光周期反应,阻止滞育,进而影响昆虫的蜕皮和变态。受感染昆虫的产卵量和卵的孵化率下降的原因尚未探明,可能与微孢子虫对寄主卵巢的破坏和储存能量的消耗有关(汪方炜和鲁兴萌,2003)。
一般认为细菌性内共生体的垂直传播可联合操纵寄主的繁殖(Bandi et al.,2001),在垂直传播中,孢子通过雌成虫的卵传给下一代,使下一代幼虫受到侵染,同时可扭曲后代的性别比例(Terry et al.,2004;Iroside et al.,2011),如被蝗虫微孢子虫侵染的非洲飞蝗通过卵细胞继续影响下一代。微孢子虫在卵黄中积累,胚动后,卵黄和微孢子虫被封闭在中肠的胚胎中。发芽的微孢子虫继而感染中肠的上皮细胞并入侵其内部组织,使胚胎在发育过程中即受到侵染,故刚孵出的幼虫的死亡率很高(Selman and Corradi,2011)。如被感染的蝗虫经卵把孢子传给后代,感染的后代在每一代的死亡率均高于未受感染的蝗虫(Raina et al.,1995)。雌性蝗虫对微孢子虫的负荷显著大于雄性,导致蝗虫后代性别比例进一步失调,对害虫产生持续有效的治理效果(Plischuk et al.,2013)。
昆虫微孢子虫是一种具有广阔前景的生物防治资源,微孢子虫的特性使它具备了作为生物杀虫剂的良好条件。它的生活周期短并具有形成大量孢子的能力,孢子外被主要成分为蛋白质和几丁质,能抵抗不良环境的影响,在昆虫体外维持生活力可达数月至数年之久(Duncan et al.,2012);某些微孢子虫可以行经卵传染的垂直传播,使其可以越年持续流行,具有持续性防治效果(王朝华和程洪杰,2008),且能调控寄主的后代性比,使其维持在较低种群水平(Terry et al.,2004;Iroside et al.,2011);微孢子虫防治害虫成本显著低于化学防治,对人畜等其它动物无害,有利于保护天敌,保持生态系统的生物多样性,防止农业生态环境的农药污染(曹成全等,2008)。
利用微孢子虫防治害虫,可有效地持续控制害虫的种群密度,并在害虫防治中取得了良好的效果。作为重要的生物防治手段,蝗虫微孢子虫Nosema locustae 受到了广泛关注(张龙和严毓骅,2000;Lange and Azzaro,2008;张 龙,2011;Plischuk et al.,2013;扈鸿霞等,2014),研制出的微孢子虫制剂已应用在田间试验并取得了较好的防治效果(Henry,1971;王丽英等,1990,1994;Lange and Azzaro,2008;Solter et al.,2012;扈鸿霞等,2014)。
目前根据不同微孢子特性和效果,已开发出相应的微孢子生物农药,如针对蝗虫微孢子和玉米螟微孢子等,用于防治蝗虫和玉米螟等,并取得了很好的效果(王丽英等,1990;问锦曾,1995;阎亮亮,2007;王朝华和程洪杰,2008)。微孢子防治害虫已经在害虫生物防治领域进行了比较广泛的研究和应用,相信在不久的将来,微孢子虫将作为一类重要的微生物杀虫剂在生物防治等领域发挥其应有的作用。
References)
Andreadis TG.Horizont al transmission of Nosema pyrausta(Microsporida:Nosemat idae)in the European corn borer,Ostrinia nubilalis(Lepidoptera:Pyralidae)[J].Environmental Entomology,1987,16(5):1124-1129.
Aurrecoechea C,Barreto A,Brestelli J,et al.AmoebaDB and MicrosporidiaDB:functional genomic resources for Amoebozoa and Microsporidia species[J].Nucleic Acids Research,2011,39:D612-D619.
Bandi C,Dunn AM,Hurst GDD,et al.Inherited microorganisms,sex specific virulence and reproductive parasitism[J].Trends Parasitol.,2001,17:88-94.
Campbell C,van Frankenhuyzen K,Smith S.Incubation period,spore egestion and horizontal transmission of Nosema fumiferanae(Microsporidia:Nosematidae)in spruce budworm(Choristoneura sp.,Lepidoptera:Tortricidae):the role of temperature and dose[J].Journal of Invertebrate Pathology,2007,94(3):204-210.
Campbell SE,Williams TA,Yousuf A,et al.The genome of Spraguea lophii and the basis of host-microsporidian interactions[J].PLoS Genetics,2013,9:e1003676.
Cao CQ,Zhang Y,Zhang CX,et al.The integrated control of locust and research advance[J].Journal of Shandong Agricultural University(Natural Science Edition),2008,39(4):657-660.[曹成全,张阳,张春学,等.蝗虫综合治理及研究进展[J].山东农业大学学报(自然科学版),2008,39(4):657-660]
Chen GW,Wang JK,Guo HS,et al.The report of microsporidia in the Spodoptera exigua[J].Journal of Henan Normal University(Natural Science),1992,20(2):2.[陈广文,王家坤,虢华山,等.甜菜夜蛾微孢子虫研究初报[J].河南师范大学学报(自然科学版),1992,20(2):2]
Chen JX,Shen J,Song DL,et al.Effect of Nosema locustae on the content of fat in Locusta migratoria manilensis[J].Acta Entomologica Sinica,2000,43(Suppl.):109-113.[陈建新,沈杰,宋敦伦,等.蝗虫微孢子虫对蝗虫脂肪含量的影响[J].昆虫学报,2000,43(增):109-113]
Chen JX,Shen J,Song DL,et al.Effect of Nosema locustae on the content of vitellogenin of Locusta migratoria manilensis[J].Acta Entomologica Sinica,2002,45(2):170-174.[陈建新,沈杰,宋敦伦,等.蝗虫微孢子虫对东亚飞蝗卵黄原蛋白含量的影响[J].昆虫学报,2002,45(2):170-174]
Cornman RS,Chen YP,Schatz MC,et al.Genomic analyses of the microsporidian Nosema ceranae,an emergent pathogen of honey bees[J].PLoS Pathogens,2009,5:e1000466.
Cuomo CA,Desjardins CA,Bakowski MA,et al.Microsporidian genome analysis reveals evolutionary strategies for obligate intracellular growth[J].Genome Research,2012,22:2478-2488.
Delbac F,Polonais V.The microsporidian polar tube and its role in invasion[J].Sub-cellular Biochemistry,2008,47:208-220.
Didier ES,Weiss LM.Microsporidiosis:current status[J].Curr.Opin.Infect.Dis.,2006,19,485-492.
Duncan AB,Agnew P,Noel V,et al.Proteome of Aedes aegypti in response to infection and coinfection with microsporidian parasites[J].Ecology and Evolution,2012,2(4):681-694.
Dunn AM,Smith JE.Microsporidian life cycles and diversity:the relationship between virulence and transmission[J].Microbes Infect,2001,3:381-388.
Dunn AM,Terry RS,Smith JE.Transovarial transmission in the microsporidia[J].Advances in Parasitology,2001,48:57-100.
Dussaubat C,Brunet JL,Higes M,et al.Gut pathology and responses to the microsporidium Nosema ceranae in the honey bee Apis mellifera[J].PLoS One,2012,7(5):e37017.
Fan XH,Feng SL,Wang RY.Preliminary observation of Nosema sp.(Microsporida)in Helicoverpa armigera(Hǜbner)larvae[J].Acta Phytophylacica Sinica,2000,27(4):377.[范秀华,冯书亮,王容燕.棉铃虫微孢子虫的初步观察[J].植物保护学报,2000,27(4):377]
Franzen C.How do microsporidia invade cells?[J].Folia Parasitologica,2005,52:36-40.
Henry JE,Oma EA.Pest control by Nosema locustae,a pthogen of grasshoppers and crickets[J].Microbial Control of Pests and Plant Diseases,Academic Press,1981,1970-1980:573-585.
Henry JE.Experimental application of Nosema locustae for control of grasshoppers[J].J.Invertebr.Pathol.,1971,18(3):389-394.
Hu HX,Wang H,Shi WP,et al.Pathogenicity of Nosema locustae to Dociostaurus kraussi kraussi[J].Chinese Journal of Applied Entomology,2014,51(2):490-495.[扈鸿霞,王晗,石旺鹏,等.蝗虫微孢子虫对红胫戟纹蝗致病性及呼吸代谢的影响[J].应用昆虫学报,2014,51(2):490-495]
Huo Y,Liu W,Zhang F,et al.Transovarial transmission of a plant virus is mediated by vitellogenin of its insect vector[J].PLoS Pathogens,2014,10(3):e1003949.
Ironside JE,Smith JE,Hatcher MJ,et al.Should sex-ratio distorting parasites abandon horizontal transmission?[J].BMC Evolutionary Biology,2011,11:370.
Katinka MD,Duprat S,Cornillot E,et al.Genome sequence and gene compaction of the eukaryote parasite Encephalitozoon cuniculi[J].Nature,2001,414:450-453.
Keeling PJ,Corradi N,Morrison HG,et al.The reduced genome of the parasitic microsporidian Enterocytozoon bieneusi lacks genes for core carbon metabolism[J].Genome Biology and Evolution,2010,2:304-309.
Kermani N,Abu-Hassan ZA,Dieng H,et al.Pathogenicity of Nosema sp.(Microsporidia)in the diamondback moth,Plutella xylostella(Lepidoptera:Plutellidae)[J].PLoS One,2013,8(5):e62884.
Khurad AM,Raina SK,Pandharipande TN.In vitro propagation of Nosema locustae using fat body cell line derived from Mythimna convecta(Lepidoptera:Noctuidae)[J].The Journal of Protozoology,1991,38(6):91-93.
Lange CE,Azzaro FG.New case of long-term persistence of Paranosema locustae(Microsporidia)in melanopline grasshoppers(Orthoptera:Acrididae:Melanoplinae)of Argentina[J].J.Invertebr.Pathol.,2008,99(3):357-359.
Lee SC,Corradi N,Doan S,et al.Evolution of the sex-related locus and genomic features shared in microsporidia and fungi[J].PLoS One,2010,5(5):e10539.
Moretto MM,Khan IA,Weiss LM.Gastrointestinal cell mediated immunity and the microsporidia[J].PLoS Pathogens,2012,8(7):e1002775.
Plischuk S,Bardi CJ,Lange CE.Spore loads of Paranosema locustae(Microsporidia)in heavily infected grasshoppers(Orthoptera:Acridoidea)of the Argentine Pampas and Patagonia[J].Journal of Invertebrate Pathology,2013,114(1):89-91.
Pu ZL.Insect Pathology[M].Guangzhou:Guangdong Science &Technology Press,1994,407-411,428.[蒲蜇龙.昆虫病理学[M].广州:广东科技出版社,1994,407-411,428].
Raina SK,Das S,Rai MM.Transovarial transmission of Nosema locustae(Microsporida:Nosematidae)in the migratory locust Locusta migratoria migratorioides[J].Parasitology Research,1995,81(1):38-44.
Ran HF,Pan WL,Feng SL.Advance of study on application of insect microsporida[J].Journal of Agricultural University of Hebei,2002,25(Suppl.):206-209.[冉红凡,潘文亮,冯书亮.昆虫微孢子虫及其应用的研究进展[J].河北农业大学学报,2002,25(增):206-209]
Scanlon M,Leitch GJ,Shaw AP,et al.Susceptibility to apoptosis is reduced in the Microsporidia-infected host cell[J].Journal of Eukaryotic Microbiology,1999,46:34S-35S.
Selman M,Corradi N.Microsporidia Horizontal gene transfers in vicious parasites[J].Mobile Genetic Elements,2011,1(4):251-255.
Senderskiy IV,Timofeev SA,Seliverstova EV,et al.Secretion of Antonospora(Paranosema)locustae proteins into infected cells suggests an active role of microsporidia in the control of host programs and metabolic processes[J].PLoS One,2014,9(4):e93585.
Shi WP,Zhang L,Yan YY,et al.Effect of Nosema locustae on aggregation behavior of oriental migratory locust(Locusta migratoria manilensis)[J].Acta Ecologica Sinica,2003,23(9):1924-1928.[石旺鹏,张龙,闫跃英,等.蝗虫微孢子虫病对东亚飞蝗聚集行为的影响[J].生态学报,2003,23(9):1924-1928]
Solter LF,Becnel JJ,Oi DH.Microsporidian entomopathogens.In:Vega FE,Kaya HK,eds.Insect Pathology[M].Elsevier,London,2012,221-263.
Terry RS,Smith JE,Bouchon D,et al.Ultrastructural characterisation and molecular taxonomic identification of Nosema granulosis n.sp.,a transovarially transmitted feminising(TTF)microsporidium[J].Eukaryotic Microbiol.,1999,46,492-499.
Terry RS,Smith JE,Sharpe RG,et al.Widespread vertical transmission and associated host sex-ratio distortion within the eukaryotic phylum Microspora[J].Proceedings of Royal Society Biological Sciences,2004,271(1550):1783-1789.
Tsaousis AD,Kunji ER,Goldberg AV,et al.A novel route for ATP acquisition by the remnant mitochondria of Encephalitozoon cuniculi[J].Nature,2008,453:553-556.
Wang CH,Cheng HJ.Continuous control function of microsporida in grassland locusts[J].Animals Breeding and Feed,2008,8:40-42.[王朝华,程洪杰.微孢子虫对草原蝗虫的持续控制作用[J].养殖与饲料,2008,8:40-42]
Wang FW,Lu XM.Microsporidiosis of insects[J].Chinese Bulletin of Entomology,2003,40(1):5-8.[汪方炜,鲁兴萌.昆虫的微孢子病[J].昆虫知识,2003,40(1):5-8]
Wang LY,Yan YH,Kuan ZH.Experimental infection of Nosema locustae canning in the oriental migratory locust Locusta migratoria manilensis(meyen)[J].Acta Entomologica Sinica,1990,33(1):121-123.[王丽英,严毓骅,管致和.蝗虫微孢子虫对东亚飞蝗的实验感染[J].昆虫学报,1990,33(1):121-123]
Wang LY,Cao C,Yu XG,et al.Effecs of the control of grasshoppers in Xin Jiang rangeland by using Nosemal locustae bran bait with different formulation[J].Chinese Journal of Biological Control,1994,10(3):123-125.[王丽英,曹春,余晓光,等.微孢子虫饵剂的不同配方对新疆草原蝗虫的防治效果[J].生物防治通报,1994,10(3):12328-12530].
Wen FY,Zhang YA,Wang YZ,et al.Advances in application of microsporidia to pest management[J].Plant Protection,2005,31(3):5-10.[温发园,张永安,王玉珠,等.微孢子虫防治农业害虫研究进展[J].植物保护学报,2005,31(3):5-10]
Wen JC,Huang H.The found of Nosema aenescens sp.nov.[J].Acta Zootaxonomica Sinica,1995,20(2):129-132.[问锦曾,黄虹.榆绿毛荧叶甲寄生微粒子虫新种记述[J].动物分类学报,1995,20(2):129-132]
Wen JC.The microsporidia of Pyrausta nubilalis[J].Current Zoology,1965,17(1):64-68.[问锦曾.寄生于玉米螟的微孢子虫[J].动物学报,1965,17(1):64-68]
Winters AD,Faisal M.Molecular and ultrastructural characterization of Dictyocoeladiporeiaen sp.(Microsporidia),a parasite of Diporeia spp.(Amphipoda,Gammaridea)[J].Parasite,2014,21:26.
Wittner M,Weiss LM.The microsporidia and microsporidiosis[M].Washington(D.C.):American Society for Microbiology,1999.
Xiang H,Pan GQ,Zhou ZY.Advances in the taxonomic study of microsporidia[J].Microbiology China,2014,41(4):734-743.[向恒,潘国庆,周泽扬.微孢子虫系统进化研究的变迁与展望[J].微生物学通报,2014,41(4):734-743]
Yan LL.The effects of Nosema locustae(NL)on Aggregation Pheromone of the Gregarious Locust(Locusta migratoria manilemis)[D].Beijing:China Agricultural University,2007.[阎亮亮.蝗虫微孢子虫病对东亚飞蝗聚集行为及其聚集信息素释放的影响[D].北京:中国农业大学,2007]
Zhang L,Yan SH.Some considerations on sustainable control over plague of locusts in China[J].Acta Entomologica Sinica,2000,43(Suppl.):180-185.[张龙,严毓骅.持续治理飞蝗灾害的新对策[J].昆虫学报,2000,43(增):180-185]
Zhang L,Zhou HY.Infection of female reproductive organs of the oriental migratory locust(Locusta migratoria manilensis)by Nosema locustae(Microsporida:Nosematidae)[J].Chinese Journal of Biological Control,1995,11(2):93-94.[张龙,周海鹰.蝗虫微孢子虫对雌性东亚飞蝗生殖器官侵染的初步观察[J].中国生物防治,1995,11(2):93-94]
Zhang L.Advances and prospects of strategies and tactics of locust and grasshopper management[J].Chinese Journal of Applied Entomology,2011,48(4):804-810.[张龙.国内外蝗害治理技术现状与展望[J].应用昆虫学报,2011,48(4):804-810]