刘永海, 武善忠
(1.军事科学院战争理论和战略研究四室,北京 100091;2.石家庄幼儿高等师范专科学校,河北石家庄 050228)
从元代道教史籍看道教的平等思想
刘永海1, 武善忠2
(1.军事科学院战争理论和战略研究四室,北京 100091;2.石家庄幼儿高等师范专科学校,河北石家庄 050228)
道教吸收各家各派的优秀观念,形成了独具特色的平等思想。道教的平等观念并不停留在思想理论的层面上,而是有各方面的宗教实践。作为记录道教中人宗教实践的主要文献,元代道教史籍对道教的平等思想有充分的反映,尤其是仙格平等、人与物之间道性平等的思想,较前世道教史籍更为集中、丰富。
元代;道教史籍;平等思想
平等是人类在久远的古代就开始追求,但迄今都没有完全实现的理想。因此,对于平等问题的探讨几乎一直伴随着人类文明的发展。在先秦文化中,很多学派从不同角度提出了平等学说。如孔子在教育方面主张“有教无类”;墨子在伦理方面主张“爱无差等”,“不辟亲疏”;韩非从政治角度坚持“赏罚不阿”、“法不阿贵”等思想。晏婴从经济利益角度提出“权有无,均贫富”的观点;孟子从道德修养角度提出“人皆可以为尧舜”的学说。庄子则站在宇宙高度,提出“以道观之,物无贵贱”、“万物齐一”的思想。
在宗教世界里,人在上帝神灵面前是平等的。道教吸收各家各派的优秀观念,形成了独具特色的平等思想。这些思想,在六朝道经《洞玄灵宝本相运度劫期经》、梁宋文明《道教义》、唐潘师正《道门经法相承次序》等道经中,都有论述。我们知道,道教的平等观念并不停留在思想理论的层面上,而是有各方面的宗教实践。作为记录道教中人宗教实践的主要文献,元代道教史籍对道教的平等思想有充分的反映,尤其是仙格平等、人与物之间道性平等的思想,较前世道教史籍更为集中、丰富。
元代道教史籍中反映的道教人无贵贱、仙格平等的思想大致有如下含义。
第一,将平等视为道德之祖、清静之源。王嚞创立全真教的重要理念就是追求“平等”。“平等”二字,正是王重阳一生思想的最后总结及最为强调者,是他在道教理论上的独特贡献。一方面,追求道教与儒、释在社会地位上的平等。他创立全真教伊始,就高扬三教合一、三教平等旗帜。后来,王嚞到山东接连创立五个教派:大定八年(1168)八月,于文登建三教七宝会。九年(1169)四月,于宁海建三教金莲会,至福山又建三教三光会,在登州建三教玉华会,至莱州起三教平等会,都是立足于儒释道三家平等,而未囿于道教。他劝道徒诵读的经典包括《般若心经》、《道德经》、《清静经》及《孝经》,也体现了其浓厚的平等意识。另一方面,追求全社会成员得到平等的救助机会。王嚞解释其创立的“平等会”云:“窃以平等者,为道德之祖,清静之源,乃‘金莲’、‘玉华’之本,‘三光’、‘七宝’之宗。普济群生,遍超庶俗。银焰充盈于八极,彩霞蒸满于十方,人人顾吐于黄芽,比比不游于黑路。”[1]347也就是说,“平等”思想是道教理论的源头,是“金莲”、“玉华”等其他全真教团的根本。这一思想体现着全真教“普济群生,遍超庶俗”,使每个人都得到救助的创教宗旨。
第二,人无贵贱、有道则尊的思想。《无上秘要》卷三十四《师资品》引《升玄经》云:“学道之人,莫择贵贱,勿言长幼。人无贵贱,有道则尊。”[2]113在道教中人看来,修持者之间没有世俗社会的贵贱、长幼之别,只有道性高低之分。元代道教史籍以许多生动的记述阐释了这种思想。《历世真仙体道通鉴》收录仙真近900人,来自社会的各个阶层,世俗所谓高贵者如王室贵族,卑微者如街头乞丐,在求仙证道的条件、历程上,皆一视同仁。即使贵为天子,倘道性不足,也未必修成正果。历史上的很多皇帝,如汉武帝一生求“仙”若渴,耗尽心机,但穷兵黩武,滥杀无辜,终难列入仙班;相反,遭受帝王压迫、陷害者,升为仙真的却不在少数。如秦统一后,始皇屡征王次仲入秦,不至。始皇复命使谓之曰:“吾削平六合,一统天下,孰敢不宾者?次仲一书生,而违天子之命,以轞车载之,不尔,当杀之;持其首当以正风俗,无肆其悖慢。”诏使至山致命,载轞车中,次仲忽化一大鸟,翻然出车,使者惊拜曰:“无复命,必见诛,惟神人悯之。”鸟徘徊空中,拨坠三翮,使者得之以进。始皇素好神仙之道,闻其变化,亦甚悔恨。[3]129此处,始皇虽久慕仙道,然体道不深,只有悔恨而已。王次仲所求并非事秦之荣耀,故对始皇之征召无积极反应,虽遭囚车之苦,终有成仙的归宿。变化飞腾之说,当然无根无据,但道教所张扬之精神已经跃然纸上。即便出身低微,若条件具备,亦可得道成仙。此等思想于元代道教史籍之中,不胜枚举。如《仙鉴》卷三之宋来子为“楚庄公时市长(勤杂人员)”,商丘子胥为牧豕之人,啸父以补履为业,冠先以钓鱼为生,阴生常求乞于长安市中等,卷五之皇初平为丹溪牧羊人,卷三十七之蓝采和原本是个叫花子,皆为下层社会成员。由是观之,成仙与否,仙阶几何,完全依据一个“道”字,除此之外,别无其他标准;而“道”之取得,又皆赖于求道之人修道、体道之程度。元代道教史籍很好地贯彻了这一思想。
第三,道性人人具足、不分长幼,修道之人要平等待人的思想。王嚞以后的很多全真教徒都能把平等的思想贯彻于自己的宗教实践之中。栖云真人王志谨则提出“道性人人具足,奚分长幼乎?”“凡隶玄门者,皆太上之徒,吾之昆季也”的观点[4]756,认为人人都道性具足,不分长幼,还视隶道门者为兄弟。这一思想要求修道之人应该平等地对待各个阶层的人,直接促进了全真教的传教度人活动。王志谨在燕蓟传教时,“达官著姓,白叟黄童,山林缁素之流,闺闱笄緫之子,莫不罗拜于前”,影响甚大。即使是丫童之拜,王志谨也作耐心解答。他还经常到各地讲经说法,不论何时何地、何种阶层,召之即往。他说:“我全真者流,不敢失前辈遗嘱,富贵者召之亦往,贫贱者召之亦往;一日十请亦往,千里来请亦往。急于利人,不敢少安以自便耳。”[4]756用直接行动诠释了平等度人的思想。夏志诚在传教过程中,同样“不择乞儿、皂隶及门弟之未行者”,“虽狂童对坐,尔汝谈笑,与贵戚大人不分等类,盖其心无彼此也”[4]764。正是这种不分等类、心无彼此的观念,使全真教争取到了各阶层的信众,在短时期内实现了迅猛发展。
《纯阳帝君神化妙通纪》中的许多吕仙故事,对平等待人思想作了最好诠释。在“石肆求茶”条中,吕洞宾“诡为丐者,衣衫褴褛,血肉垢污,殆不可近”,茶肆女“殊无厌恶意,益取上茗待之”。吕以富贵、长寿佑之[5]712。在“再度郭仙”条,吕洞宾也是诡称乞丐;“神警陈公”、“游大庾岭”、“游戏虹桥”、“成都施丹”诸条,吕洞宾皆以衣衫褴褛、垢面鹑衣的道士身份出现;“度黄莺妓”中又成了褴褛垢污的秀才。对于道教仙真这种“以脏试人”的现象,法国学者洪怡沙(Isabelle Ang)说:“赞成污垢就是认同同样的社会地位。”[6]的确,吕洞宾以贫穷、低俗、脏乱的形象出现,而受测试者并没有任何歧视举动,而是一视同仁,这与道教平等待人的思想是十分吻合的,反映着道教对平等的追求。
茅山道士朱象先直接阐述了“人”与“物”(动、植物)相互平等的思想:“人与物,林然在大化中,性一而已。特禀之于形气者,有正偏通塞之异耳”;“尝闻大钧播物,非厚木而薄秭稗也。圣人博爱,亦非尚贤而鄙愚也。一视同仁、理惟公共”[7]559。意思是说“人”与“(动、植)物”只有形气的不同,而无道性之差异。修道之人应该像圣人那样对人贤愚互爱,对“人”与“物”一视同仁,这一思想显然是基于先秦道家“万物齐一”和唐代潘师正“一切有形,皆有道性”而来,但如此鲜明地提出人和动、植物平等的思想,在前世道教史籍中还是不多见的。《妙通纪》讲了一则吕洞宾在岳州巴陵县度化老松精的故事。老松精因累积阴功,有了灵气,具备了成仙的条件,所以得到吕仙的度化。在早期道教故事模式中,松精是精怪之一,属于恶势力的代表,不但不能度化为仙,反而是严厉镇压的对象。吕洞宾度化老松精,说明道教神仙度化范围的扩大,将动植物也纳入度化对象。詹石窗说:“道教不仅要把苦难中的人们引渡到祥和清静的彼岸世界,而且也希望一切有灵之物也能成就正果。”[8]297《金莲正宗记》也提到吕仙度老松精的事:“老松之精,无情之物也,犹且区区训诲,使成无上神仙,况于人为万物之最灵者乎?”[1]346说明所谓“无情之物”也能成仙的观念在道教乃至民间已经颇为流行。
道教以万物皆有道性的观点阐明了万物平等的主张,自然界中的一切并不是为人类而存在,而是各自有其自身的价值,从而否定了人类凌驾于万物之上的特权。所以,人与自然的合理关系就是共存共荣,融合为一体。元代道教史籍中反映出许多仙真尊重自然,尊重动物、植物,反对杀食动物,否则将遭到报应的思想。如借真武之口宣扬:“恣杀物命,以充口腹,冤家业鬼相随,无由解脱”,“凡好食生命,不悟因业等人,难免殃咎嗣昌”[9]625等。基于这样一种人和动植物平等的思想,元代道教史籍中的许多道者对动植物非常爱护。如陈安世“禀性慈仁,行见鸟兽下道,避之不愿惊动,不践生虫,未尝杀物”[3]173。牛文侯“每冬寒则布谷于地,使禽兽有所食”[3]272。梁时隐者孔祐居天丹山,“有鹿中矢,来投祐;祐为牧豢,愈而后去”[10]99。这些仙真都把动物当作人类的朋友来对待,给它们喂食、疗伤。正是因为善待动物,动物才不伤害人类。郭文举居深山十余年而无患,丞相王导迎至京师问曰:“猛兽害人,先生独不畏耶?”文举曰:“吾无害兽之心,故兽不害人。”[3]263对此,我们不可作机械理解,追究郭文举到底有无与野兽相安无事的经历,而应该看到道教中人准确地说出了人与动物应有的和谐关系,以及人类在处理和动物之间关系时应有的“无害兽之心”的态度。世俗爱鸟者,将鸟置于狭小的笼子里,对鸟而言,实为最大之不幸。得道之人爱鸟、养鸟,不是养之以笼,而是完全放归自然。宋代道士塗定辞“好饲群鸟,或临风一呼,则千数翔集,驯狎左右”[3]376。完全是一幅人与动物和谐相处、其乐融融的美妙图画。
元代道教史籍还有反对滥割草木,提倡爱护自然、种植树木的思想。潘师正奉敕修建宫观后,谓弟子曰:“兴动土工,屠割草木,惊扰禽兽,吾罪人也。”[3]246虽然兴建工程受帝室支持,但潘师正还是为破坏了本来和谐的自然环境而痛心。一些高道为种植树木、美化自然作出了自己的努力。如展上公曾于小茅山北种白李树,郭四朝曾使人植树于郭干塘[11]587。董奉:“君居(庐)山间,呪水治病,不取钱物,使人重病愈者,栽杏五株;轻者一株。如此数年,计得七万余株,郁然成林。而山中百虫群兽,游戏树下。”杏子成熟后,董奉又将杏子变卖成粮食,用来救济庐山贫苦百姓和南来北往的饥民[3]192。这就是医学历史上著名的“杏林”故事,“杏林”一词便渐渐成为医家的专用名词。董奉行医济世的高尚品德,赢得了百姓的普遍敬仰;他让人在山上种植杏树,在绿化、美化自然方面也功不可没。北宋武陵道士龚元正“手植松杉数十万株”[3]405,以一人之力,植树数十万株,其精神尤为可贵。相比之下,大滌山洞霄宫的植树绿化则是众多高道持久不懈努力的结果,反映了道教中人热爱自然、美化山川的群体意识。“宋淳熙三年(1176),同知宫事章居中,凡宫山冈阜,与民境接者,悉数以松,亲董工役。”此后,历世道众累年植树,到元代大德九年(1305),历经一百二十余年。此时的大滌山“四山虬枝龙形,环列森立”,树木“围皆丈许”,景色“真图画所不能到”。可见,知宫及植树众道士“经始培植之功,不可泯也”[12]34。
总之,元代道教史籍拥有丰富的平等思想,在人与人之间,既有追求身份平等的思想,又有平等待人的观念;在人与物之间,既有人和动物和谐相处的举动,又有人与植物自然融合的实践。如此集中、丰富地展现道教的平等思想,在以往道教史籍中是没有过的。而全真教以平等作为创教理念,更是对道教理论的一大贡献。当然,我们说道教具有平等思想,不是说道教能够做到完全的平等。道教的神仙谱系也像世俗社会的官僚体系一样,是等级森严的;道教中的女仙无论从数量上,还是从影响力上讲,与男性仙真都有差距,这也反映了道教不平等的一面。但是,相对于儒、释而言,道教的平等思想更有特色,对平等的追求更为直接、炽烈。
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Abstract:After China joining the WTO,it has become the consensus of the people that China's media industry must go to the world and to participate in international competition.China's media companies need to grasp the new opportunity to promoting the implement of internationalization strategy.The Chinese government also needs to arrange appropriate institutions and actively promote and protect the actions of media enterprises internationalization.
Key words:China's media industry;internationalization;strategy;reflection
Zhou Enlai's Contributions to the Formation of China's Diplomacy Pattern
WANG Jia-yun
(School of Politics and Public Administration, Huaiyin Normal University, Huai'an, Jiangsu 223001, China)
Zhou Enlai made the following foundation contributions to the formation of China's diplomacy pattern:First is the breakthrough of foreign body.Zhou Enlai attached importance to summit diplomacy, and actively carried out party-to-party diplomacy and people-to-people diplomacy;second is the transcendence of foreign objects.Zhou Enlai focus on diplomacy with socialist countries,and transcending ideological differences to frequently develop the foreign relations with the third world countries and the capitalist countries;third is the expansion of foreign content, including political diplomacy, economic diplomacy and cultural diplomacy.
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Mao Zedong's Views on Science
ZENG Min
(Research Department of Mao Zedong Thought Sichuan Provincial Academy of Social Sciences, Chengdu, Sichuan 610072, China)
Abstract:Mao Zedong interpreted the complex concept of"Science"from various perspectives,by studying and absorbing the reflection and research on science from various subjects.On the basis that science is the embodiment of knowledge, he raised the idea that science is the crystallization of the knowledge.On the basis that science is to search for truth, he introduced that science is the weapon of searching for truth.On the basis that science is the tool to change the world, he proposed that science is armed forces to fighting for freedom.On the basis that science is social organizational structure,he thought that modernization of science and technology is the key to realize the modernization of industry, agriculture and national defense.Mao Zedong's scientific minds explained the basic areas of Mao Zedong's thought on science and technology.
Key words:Mao Zedong;scientific concept;thought on science and technology
Philosophic Foundation of the Unity of Natural Science and Humanities and Social Sciences—Based on"The Same Science"Perspective in the Manuscripts of Economic Philosophy of 1844
ZHU Chun-shan1,WANG Rong-jiang2
(1.College of Law and Politics, Xuzhou Normal University, Xuzhou, Jiangsu 221116, China;2.School of Politics and Public Administration, Huaiyin Normal University, Huai'an, Jiangsu 223001, China)
Abstract:The problem of achieving the unity of the natural sciences and the humanities and social sciences has always been concerned by academic circles, which has not been resolved.In the Manuscripts of Economic Philosophy of 1844, by transforming Feuerbach's"perceptual"criticism,Marx established the new understanding of man and nature and social relations,and made an ideological assertion that natural science and human science essentially belong to"the same science".Marx's"the same science"idea implies theoretical foundation of the unity of natural science and humanities and social sciences.The emotion and practical existentialism based on the dialectic relationship between man and nature are the logic starting point and the end for human liberation, a blend of natural sciences and humanities and social sciences.
Key words:natural science;human science;perceptual practice;the same science
Heidegger's Thought on Human-World Relation and Its Contemporary Revelation
LIN Hui-yue1, LI Xi-qi2, XIA Fan3
(1.& 3.School of Humanities and Law,Changsha University of Science and Technology;2.Hunan Information Science Vocational College, Changsha, Hunan 410000, China)
Abstract:Basing on"Dasein"of Ontology,Heidegger demonstrated that human-world relation and human-technology relation are an operational and practical relation and he did a skillful critique from existential and humanistic standpoint.Contemporary technological phenomenology focus on human-technology relation and it shows experience turning besides metaphysical tradition.Critique of technology is important, but the social construction of technology is more fundamental.Through the adjustment and control of technology, the ecological balance system among man, technology and the world can be established.
Key words:Heidegger;human and the world;human and technology;technological phenomenology
The Equal Ideas from Taoism History Books of Yuan Dynasty
LIU Yong-hai1,WU Shan-zhong2
(1.The Fourth Research Office of Theories and Strategic of War, Academy of Military Sciences, Beijing 100091, China;2.Shijiazhuang Preschool Teachers College, Shijiazhuang, Hebei 050228, China)
Abstract:By absorbing the excellent concept from various factions, Taoism formed a unique equality thought.Taoism's concept of equality is not stuck in the ideological and theoretical level, but there are various religious practices.Taoist thought of equality are fully reflected in Taoism history books of Yuan dynasty.Compared with the previous Taoism historical records, the thought of equality in Taoism history books of Yuan dynasty is more concentrated and rich.
Key words:Yuan dynasty;history books on Taoism;equal thought
The Nature of Existence Theory of Chinese Philosophy—the Theory of Jism as the Center
LIU Yi-qing
(College of Humanities, Shaoxing University, Shaoxing, Zhejiang 312000, China)
Abstract:The thought of Qi and the survival concept of the Chinese are closely associated.In the context of Chinese philosophy history,we can clarify the ideological content of Jism since the pre-Qin dynasty;thereby we can understand the natures of Existence Theory of Chinese Philosophy.From the meaning of the existence theory, human's individual existence is always available to communication with the outside world,and the contradiction of the individual can always be resolved through their own transformation.Meanwhile, the physical and spiritual homology decides that soul and body in the survival view of the Chinese system are unified in Qi.
Key words:Qi;Jism;Chinese philosophy;theory of existence
Spivak:Rhetoric and Cultural Interpretation
GUAN Rong-zhen
(School of Foreign languages, Guangxi University, Nanning, Guangxi 530004, China)
Abstract:This paper examines Gayatri Chakravorty Spivak's challenging the traditional definitions of rhetoric, pointing out that rhetoric can only be settled in the productive unease shuttling between theory and practice,which grants infinitive openness to rhetoric,and revealing the significance of uplifting rhetoric to such a strategic position of indeterminacy in postcolonial cultural criticism.
Key words:rhetoric;metaphor;tension;shuttle;cultural interpretation
Philosophy of"Harmony"and Study of Urban Aesthetics
LI Wei
(College of Arts, Anhui Normal University, Wuhu, Anhui 241000, China)
Abstract:The philosophical thought with rich connotation co-sponsored by China and the West in the"Axle Age"is essential theoretical resource for the construction of contemporary harmonious society and urban cultural studies,which provides us utilizing thoughts and intellectual supports to solve"urban issues"and"urban crisis"in the process of urbanization,and even provides the necessary theoretical reference and academic support for the burgeoning urban aesthetics research.
Key words:"harmony";urban aesthetics;heterogeneity;complementarities;contradictoriness
Design and Application of Immoral Internet Behavior Scale—The Study of College Students Internet Users as a Case
HUANG Shao-hua
(Ningbo Institute of Technology, Zhejiang University, Ningbo, Zhejiang 315100, China)
Abstract:Through documents, interviews, and open-ended questionnaires, the author designed the measurement scale for college students'immoral Internet behavior, which contains two dimensions of social morality and professional morality.The author used this scale to measure college students'immoral Internet behavior.The author found that the scale has good reliability and validity.College students'participation in the"Internet plagiarism"and"Internet piracy"becomes more common, therefore it is urgent to strengthen the cultivation of college student Internet morality.
Key words:college student;network morality;immoral Internet behavior;scale
Reflection on the Development Strategy of Internationalization of China's Media Industry
DING He-gen1,ZHENG Qing-hua2
(1.School of Journalism and Communication, Nanjing University, Nanjing, Jiangsu 210093, China;2.School of Humanities,Yantai University, Yantai, Shandong 264005, China)
K247 < class="emphasis_bold">文献标识码:A
A
1007-8444(2011)06-0743-04
2011-05-20
刘永海(1968-),男,河北遵化人,博士,教授,主要从事历史文献学研究。
责任编辑:仇海燕