商略
史学篇
“浙学”肇始于南宋,连绵不绝,直至明、清依然大放光彩。其时间跨度之久、涉及学术种类之广、参与学者之众,在几千年的中国学术史上是极为罕见的。“浙东学派”最重要的成就是史学。本文针对“浙学”渐变“浙东史学”这一现象,对“浙东史学”尤其是其开创者黄宗羲的学术传统、治学方法及学术环境等方面进行多视角剖析,追溯其渊源。
“浙东学派”一词,源于南宋之“浙学”。“浙学”包含两层意思:一是“浙”字,即两浙路之统称;二是“学”字,即以儒学为主要治学方向。南宋时期,大儒朱熹对“浙学”抱有极大偏见,称“近世言浙学者,多尚事功”(朱熹《范香溪先生小传》,《范香溪先生文集》卷首),“浙学却专是功利”(《朱子语类》卷一二三),“浙学尤更丑陋,如潘步昌、吕子约之徒,皆已深陷其中不知”(《晦庵先生朱文公文集》卷五十《答程正思》)。且不论朱熹的批判是否恰当,从中却正可说明南宋两浙学术已具备了相当的规模与体系。近人朱晓鹏《浙学刍议——浙学传统与浙江精神研究之一》认为:“宋元时期,学者们已公认存在着一个主要由婺州学派和永嘉学派等构成的‘浙学,并且已了然其学术思想的传承脉络。”也就是说,南宋的“浙学”,与同时期的闽学、湖学、赣学一样,成为了国内主要的地域性儒学流派。
一
明末清初,黄宗羲与顾炎武并称“开国儒宗”,然“浙东贵专家,浙西尚博雅,各因其习而习”(章学诚《文史通义》内篇),“浙学”遂有“浙东”“浙西”之分。梁启超《清代学术概论》也有类似划分:“大抵清代经学之祖推炎武,其史学之祖当推宗羲。”黄宗羲在《移史馆论不宜立理学传书》中,首倡了“浙东学派”一词:“言浙东学派最多流弊……凡海内之知学者,要皆东浙之所衣被也。今忘其衣被之功,徒訾其流弊之失,无乃刻乎?”
明末清初,黄宗羲率其后来者走出了一条自成系统的治史道路,后世称之“浙东史学”。梁启超云:“浙东学风,自梨洲、季野、谢山以至章实斋,厘然自成一系统,而其贡献最大者,实在史学。”(《清代学术概论》)如此,“浙东学派”顺理成章地成为了“浙东史学”。梁启超《中国学术思想变迁之大势》强调:“浙东学派……其源出于梨洲、季野而尊史,其巨子曰邵二云、全谢山、章实斋。……吾于浙派中,宁尊浙东。”他的《中国近三百年学术史》一文,则试图厘清“浙东史学”的流变:“明清嬗代之际,王门下惟蕺山一派独盛,学风已渐趋健实……而梨洲影响于后来者尤大。梨洲为清代浙东学派之开创者,其派复衍为二:一为史学,二即王学。”
但“浙东学派”与“浙东史学”,在概念上还是有相当大的差别。因为“学术”的范畴,远比“史学”来得大。传统儒家学术体系,包括了“经史子集”,“史学”只是其中的一个分支。清季以来,浙东学术之精髓在于史学,是后代学者所公认的。但上溯其嬗变,可以发现“浙学”中的史学倾向,自南宋以来已成其传统。如朱熹批判“浙学”,也是基于两浙学者“由儒入史”的现象,他说:“伯恭之学大概尊《史记》,以为先黄老,后六经,此自是太史谈之学。”(《宋元学案》卷五十二)
一般认为,黄宗羲是“浙东史学”的开山之祖,在“浙学”历史上起到了承前启后的作用。他继承和发扬了宋明以来的“浙学”传统,更是通过“书院讲学”的手段,培养了一大批著闻之士,形成了独树一帜的“浙东史学”流派。就黄宗羲的史学意识来说,它不可能是凭空产生的。那么,他的史学意识是什么时候开始觉醒的?培养他史学意识的土壤又是什么呢?
黄宗羲私淑弟子全祖望曾总结黄宗羲一生学养之构成:“公以濂洛之统,综合诸家,横渠之礼教,康节之数学,东莱之文献,艮斋、止斋之经制,水心之文章,莫不旁推交通,连珠合璧,自来儒林所未有也。”(《梨洲先生神道碑》)后生如章学诚,以为黄宗羲开创清代“浙东史学”是“历有渊源”的,承接了南宋以来浙东学派的传统。近人仓修良《黄宗羲和清代浙东史学》更是认为:“黄宗羲的学术思想,与宋代以来的浙东学派是分不开的。”但是,诸多观点都没有说明黄宗羲史学意识的产生原因,究竟来自浙东学派的治学传统,还是源自他自身的觉悟。
二
对于“浙东史学”之渊源,我们不能单纯从“史学”角度进行求索。无论南宋之“浙学”发端,还是清代之集大成,我們都应该根据它自身的学术沉积,去分析遗传而得的学术基因。从“浙学”诸多史家的治学经历来看,他们对于史学的转向,似乎是来自对儒学(或经学,或理学,或心学)的更深刻理解,从而激发了他们的史学意识。章学诚云:“浙东之学,言性命者,必究于史。”(章学诚《文史通义》内篇)这就说明,这些人“史学意识”的产生,开始时并无主观意识或愿望,它更像是实践儒学的一个必备工具。
我极为认同吴光先生把“浙东学派”命名为“浙东经史学派”的做法。他在《黄宗羲与清代学术》一书中论及:“关于清代浙东学派,前人往往作狭义的理解,称之浙东史学派,并以章学诚为其殿军,恐怕有失偏颇。愚意以为,浙东学派是一个包括经学、史学、文学、自然科学在内的学术流派,虽以史学成绩显著,但不应仅仅视作一个史学流派。”章学诚有著名的“六经皆史”的观点,细究之下,可以发现这一观点的基础,在“六经”而非“史”。
浙东一隅,明代学术以“姚江学派”为中坚,承接宋元以来的理学传统,走出了一条独特的心学之路,在姚江两岸开枝散叶。姚江学派的中流砥柱是王守仁(阳明),其“阳明心学”不仅遍及两浙,而且影响后代数百年,确立了以“良知”为本体、“致良知”为方法论、“知行合一”为实践手段的理论体系。姚江学派之后,有刘宗周之绍兴蕺山学派。刘蕺山虽然修正了阳明四句教,确立诚意、慎独主旨,但时人仍视蕺山学派为姚江学派的后世分支。
黄宗羲为绍兴刘蕺山(宗周)弟子,《清史稿·黄宗羲传》载:“山阴刘宗周倡道蕺山,(宗羲)以忠端遗命从游。”其父黄尊素(忠端公)遗命如何,今日难以得见,却可推定黄尊素要求宗羲投身蕺山门下的主要原因,是刘蕺山为阳明的再传弟子,是当世保持正统姚江学脉的唯一大儒。宗羲一族,世居余姚,其父、祖及先祖多以儒学或文学闻名,未见有治史者。他父亲生前的愿望,并不是想让他成为一个史家,而是让他继承并延续明代中期以来风靡全国的姚江心学思想。他父亲与很多地方名士一样,有着十分强烈的学术传承意识。
黄宗羲成为蕺山弟子之后,确实没有辜负父亲所愿,极力维护着姚江学派的正统。《黄宗羲传》记载:“越中承海门周氏之绪,授儒入释,姚江之绪几坏。宗羲独约同学六十余人力排其说。故蕺山弟子如祁、章诸子皆以名德重,而御侮之功莫如宗羲。”但黃宗羲并不拘囿于阳明心学的旧有理论,进一步提出“经世应务”,强调“学以致用”的实用原则。黄宗羲的“经世应务”,遥遥呼应着南宋时期婺州学派和永嘉学派的“事功”,这恰恰也是朱熹批判“浙学”的主要原因。
三
黄宗羲对于“经世应务”的实践,最终成为了他治史的根本目的和为学宗旨。他在《补历代史表序》一文中强调:“学必原本于经术而后不为蹈虚,必证明于史籍而后足以应务。”又说:“夫二十一史所载,凡经世之业无不备矣。”这个“经世”和“应务”,强调了浙东史学的学术基础,是经史之学而非其他,即必须熟读前儒经典和历朝史料才能“治国平天下”。
“经世应务”的实用性原则,也体现在他的《今水经序》的开头部分:“古者儒、墨诸家,其所著书,大者以治天下,小者以为民用,盖未有空言无事实者也。”继而批判道:“后世流为词章之学,始修饰字句,流连光景,高文巨册,徒充污惑之声而已。”
黄宗羲一生坚持“经世应务”,与他痛恨科场制举的不良习气有关。其《补历代史表序》云:“自科举之学盛,而史学遂废……自科举之学盛,世不复知有书矣。六经、子、史,亦以为冬华之桃李,不适于用……而先王之大经大法,兵农礼乐,下至九流六艺,切于民生日用者,荡为荒烟野草,由大人之不说‘学以致之也。”黄宗羲以为,只有把前朝历史作为现实的借鉴,熟读史书,总结经验,才有可能“足以应务”,切合于民生日用。
黄宗羲在《明儒学案序》一文中,强调了自己对阳明心学的继承(强调学术正统),也从侧面印证了“浙东史学”之所本在于儒学。而史学研究,不过是一种手段罢了。其云:“盈天地皆心也,变化不测,不能不万殊。心本无体,功力所至,即其本体。故穷理者,穷此心之万殊,非穷万物之万殊也。……某为《明儒学案》,上下诸先生,浅深各得,醇疵互见,要皆功力所至,竭其心之万殊者而后成家,未尝以蒙瞳精神,冒人糟粕,于是为之分源别派,使其宗旨历然。”
黄宗羲的“经世应务”,体现在他的治史特点上。他把史学研究的重点放在了“近现代史”上。这里讲的“近现代史”,是宋、元、明史,尤其是明史。无论是实录型的《明史案》《行朝录》《弘光实录钞》,还是学案类的《明儒学案》《明文案》《宋元文案》及未完稿的《宋元学案》,还是合集类的《明文海》《姚江逸诗》《浙东文统》,还是别史类的《四明山志》《黄氏家录》《思旧录》,这些著作都体现了“近现代史”的特点。
余姚旧有“文献名邦”之称,历史上的著闻学者多“经史兼修”,如三国虞翻注《周易》《国语》;晋代虞预编撰《晋书》和《会稽典录》;隋唐之际,虞世南撰《北堂书钞》与《帝王略论》;明初宋玄僖参与官方《元史》编修。正因为有这样悠远深厚的经史土壤(或者说传统),再看黄宗羲的“由经入史”,不过是水到渠成罢了。
“浙东学派”之史学意识的产生,既有其“经世应务”的内在觉醒,又有本地传统的外在催化。还有一点,在清代初中期大兴文字狱的专制统治下,黄宗羲及其晚辈史家,多以遗老自居,隐居讲学,无疑是当时最妥当的全身方法。即投身纯粹的史学研究,又保持自己的民族气节。像黄宗羲那样,从一开始的反清复明,到后来隐居城郊竹浦及龙虎草堂,治史以避祸,他的这一段人生轨迹,也可以看成是一个学者的求生选择。
(本文图片除署名外,来自视觉中国)
Scholars of Eastern Zhejiang School:Focus on History
By Shang Lue
Scholars of Zhejiang established themselves as a national phenomenon after the Southern Song (1127-1279) put its roots down in Hangzhou, present-day capital city of Zhejiang Province. In a sense, these scholars were not conventional ones. They advocated the pursuit of successful solutions to practical needs at national level as well as at grassroots level. Zhu Xi, a famed scholar of the Southern Song, contemptuously dismissed the scholars of Zhejiang for being bogged down in such ugly quest. In following centuries, eminent scholars continued to emerge in Zhejiang and they are known as regional schools such as Western Zhejiang School, Eastern Zhejiang School, Jinhua School, Yongjia School, etc.
Huang Zongxi (1610-1695) was the biggest scholar of the early Qing in Zhejiang. He and his followers blazed a new trail in history studies. These scholars are called historians of Eastern Zhejiang. Huang gave lectures at regional academies where younger scholars emerged. Unlike scholars in the previous dynasties and Huangs contemporaries who focused on Confucian classics, scholars of eastern Zhejiang concentrated on history, carrying on a tradition that started in the Song and flourished in the Ming in the hands of Wang Yangming. Huangs focus on history was just like his predecessors in Zhejiang: a quest of practical solutions to practical needs, of practical answers to practical questions in governance.
Huang and his fellow scholars of the early Qing scrutinized history for practical solutions and understanding of problems in everyday life. This was an approach made possible by their deeper understanding of Confucian classics. Their understanding of classics can be attributed to their studies of classics, history, literature, and science.
The focus on history reflects Huangs belief that knowledge must be practical and scholars must learn how to solve problems in national and regional governance. It is not difficult to understand why history played a key role in the study of these scholars. Unlike which generated academic interests in the 1990s, Huangs was regarded as a masterpiece in the Qing Dynasty (1644-1911). It is a systematic survey of all of the important schools of thought that arose in the Ming Dynasty (1368-1644). The 62-volume encyclopedic book names 210 scholars and explores their interconnection and geographic distribution, and critically evaluates the life and teachings of the important scholars from each school. It is considered as the first great history of Chinese philosophy.
This work reflects Huangs approach to history study: he preferred dynasties close in time to him. He didnt look far back to dynasties such as the Tang (618-907) or the Han (206BC-220AD) that existed a long time ago. No wonder he first examined scholars of the Ming Dynasty. He himself was born and brought up in the Ming. He intended to write a similar review of the scholars of the Song Dynasty and the Yuan Dynasty (1279-1368), but he passed away before being able to finish it.
Eastern Zhejiang produced generations of scholars. Huang Zongxi and other scholars in the early Qing years did not emerge by chance. Pursuit of education in eastern Zhejiang was a way of life and the tradition of historical studies had been around for a long time. Before the Ming, scholars of Yuyao had annotated classics and histories. It would be natural that Huang followed his predecessors footsteps. Another reason why these scholars turned their attention to history was that the literary inquisition of the Qing gagged scholars from speaking out. Huang Zongxi, a scholar who grew up in the Ming and fought the Qing in the early years of the dynasty, gave up the fight and retired to a life of scholarly pursuit to avoid persecution. It was the only reasonable choice available to him. His two younger brothers and a friend disliked his choice and broke relations with him.