Management of China's capture fisheries: Review and prospect

Shuolin Huang, Yuru He

a College of Marine Culture and Law, Shanghai Ocean University, Shanghai, 201306, China

b Institute of Marine Science, Shanghai Ocean University, Shanghai, 201306, China

c College of Foreign Languages, Shanghai Ocean University, Shanghai, 201306, China

Keywords:Capture fisheries Fisheries management China Practices Prospect

ABSTRACT Management of capture fisheries has been a perpetual problem facing all fisheries countries worldwide. This study first analyzes the features of China's capture fisheries,and points out that its management tends to be more complex and difficult than any other country in the world.It goes on to describe the history of China's fisheries management and the development process of China's fisheries policies, recognizing the role of fisheries policies in guiding and promoting industrial production during the whole development process.With Fisheries Law of the People's Republic of China as the basic framework, China is thought to have initially formed a fisheries management system with a complete structure and powerful measures for constant improvement and reinforcement.Major systems and measures of China's fisheries management are summarized, with their corresponding effects being evaluated to a certain extent. China's continuous introduction of advanced fisheries management philosophies over the past decades, especially since the reform and opening up, plays an active role in securing the prosperity of the following five industries:aquaculture,capture fisheries,processing and logistics,enhancement,and recreational fisheries; more effort has been put into fisheries ecological environment restoration; and lawbased governance capacity in fisheries has been significantly improved. However, due to the characteristics of China's fisheries,as well as the complex and uncertain nature of fisheries itself,certain prominent problems still remain in its capture fisheries. With reference to relevant fisheries development planning, the study concludes with a prospect that China's capture fisheries management will be steered towards the total catch control of fisheries resources and the intensification of resource conservation and ecological restoration.

Management of capture fisheries has been a problem facing all fisheries countries worldwide. Fisheries management refers to a set of legal, social, economic and political arrangements for the purpose of managing fisheries at international, domestic and local levels. It not only includes legally binding rules like domestic fisheries regulations or international fisheries conventions, but also involves fishermen-related social arrangements and corresponding national economic frameworks for orderly fisheries activities. In recent years, capture fisheries management has attracted universal attention from the international community and national governments, because fisheries resources are on a declining trend and the industry is plagued with economic and social problems (Huang & Tang, 2019). With a long history as the largest fisheries state in the world, China is never short of fisheries chaos and disorder (Tang, 2018). From 1980s, or even earlier in 1950s, the Chinese government began to manage capture fisheries before its engagement in global fisheries management since the mid-1980s(Han,2018).Recent available publications regarding China's capture fisheries management are more concentrated on the marine areas (Kang and Liu,2018;Cao and Chen, 2017; Liang,2018;Shen and Heino,2014) rather than the freshwater side(Kang and Huang,2017;Yue and Wang,2017),as 11.12 m tons of marine captures far exceed 2.18 m tons of freshwater captures (China Fisheries Year Book, 2018).

Despite the relatively rich management practices of Chinese government at all levels, related literature largely fails to present a panoramic view of China's marine and freshwater capture fisheries management from a long historical perspective, a gap comprehensively addressed in this review. This paper first elaborates on the features of China's capture fisheries, the management history of which is then analyzed by chronologically revisiting related Chinese official policies.It moves on to systematically discuss the country's sustainable management practices in this field, categorizing them into ten sections.Based on the historical policy development, it provides practical suggestions regarding the implementation of in-put and out-put control,closed seasons, right-based management, ecological conservation, distant water fisheries, as well as an in-depth study of novel philosophies in this field. The management of China's capture fisheries is presented in this paper through an extensive literature review, which mainly relies on sources from FAO, Chinese official plans, laws and regulations,reports, China's Fisheries Year Book, in addition to other academic,media and organizational publications.

1. Characteristics of China's fisheries

1.1. Characteristics of China's marine fisheries resources and marine capture fisheries

The geographical locations of China's sea areas are closely connected with the characteristics of their marine fsiheries resources. The seas around China (i.e. the Bohai Sea, the Yellow Sea, the East China Sea and the South China Sea) all belong to semi-closed margin-seas.Due to the hydrological characteristics of their semi-closed nature,major marine fisheries resources in the waters surrounding China are relatively independent or closed,resulting in their lack of cosmopolitan species and pelagic migratory fsih stocks.

The operating methods of China's marine capture fisheries include:trawling, seine fishing drift netting, stow netting, dip netting, cover netting, square netting, long-line fishing, pole fishing, cage fishing,squid jigging, etc. China is home to the world's largest number of marine fishing vessels (around 166.3 thousand; China Fisheries Year Book,2018)and has remained No.1 in terms of capture yield for years.Compared with the 1980s and before, some of the current major economic catches are of smaller physical sizes, with younger ages that reach sexual maturity earlier. The total marine catches in 2017 are made up of fish(69.7%),crustaceans(17.8%),cephalopods(4.6%),and shellfish (5.2%; Fisheries Bureau, 2017). Marine catches tend to shift from high-value varieties to low-value breeds.

1.2. Characteristics of China's freshwater fisheries resources and freshwater capture fisheries

It is estimated that there are 1050 species of freshwater fish in China, and they belong to 294 genera in 52 families of 18 orders.Among them, there are 967 species of pure freshwater fish, 15 species of anadromous or catadromous migratory fish, and 68 species of estuarine fish (Liu, 2000). In addition, China's freshwater fisheries resources also include crustaceans, shellfish, algae and other fisheries resources.

China's freshwater capture fisheries focus on naturally-growing fisheries resources in rivers, lakes, reservoirs and other waters. It employs a wide range of small fishing gears for production. Its freshwater harvest in 2017 reached 2.183 million tons, among which there were 1.615 million tons of fish (74%), 289,300 tons of crustaceans (13.3%),and 251,800 tons of shellfish (11.5%) (Fisheries Bureau, 2017).Due to changes in the habitat of natural fisheries resources in rivers,lakes and reservoirs, freshwater stocks are being depleted and freshwater fishing has been declining in recent years.

The rapid development of China's fisheries has reaped fruitful results, which greatly satisfies the society's demand for material wealth.With abundant supply of aquatic products, China has long secured the appearance of fish dishes on Chinese people's tables. However, the resources and environment on which the industry heavily relies have become increasingly constrained. Therefore, in terms of scientific development, fisheries in China have shown obvious structural overcapacity.It indicates that major impediments of industrial growth have shifted to excessive resource consumption, enormous environmental pressure, as well as unbalanced, uncoordinated and unsustainable development. In general, China's capture fisheries management proves to be more complex and difficult than any other country in the world.Over the years, the Chinese government has been continuously exploring a suitable management path based on the national conditions and seeking an optimal fisheries management system suitable for its fisheries development.

2. History of China's capture fisheries management

2.1. Budding of China's capture fisheries management

In ancient China, there were some restrictions on fisheries, and certain fisheries official system was set up to perform particular capture fisheries management (Huang, 1999). After the Xinhai Revolution of 1911, the then Nanjing Government's attempt to manage the industry promoted the growth of marine fisheries. In 1929, the government of the Republic of China introduced the Fisheries Law,which stipulated the country's development and management policies regarding capture fisheries before the promulgation of the Implementation Rules of the Fisheries Law in 1930. In the early 1930s, the Republic of China successively enacted a series of regulations on fisheries management: in July 1930, Regulations on Fisheries Registration was published together with the Implementation Rules for the Regulations on Fisheries Registration;in 1931, the Fisheries Police Procedures were adopted; in 1932, the

Provisional Rules for the Registration of Chief Engineer and Fishing Master of Fishing Vessel and Organizational Act of Marine Fisheries Management Authority were issued;and the year of 1933 witnessed the promulgation of the Provisional Procedures of the Ministry of Industry on the Collection of Fisheries Construction Fees and Provisional Rules regarding the Fisheries Protection Office of the Ministry of Industry (Huang, 1999). As the Anti-Japanese War (World War II) broke out during the process, China's fisheries almost came to an effective standstill and the above mentioned regulations were basically not implemented after their promulgation.

After the founding of the People's Republic of China (PRC), the central government and people's governments at all levels began to focus on the management of capture fisheries,especially that of marine capture fisheries. In June 1955, the State Council issued the Order regarding Motorized Trawl Fisheries Closed Fishing Areas of the Bohai Sea,the Yellow Sea and the East China Sea; in April 1957, the Ministry of Aquaculture promulgated Provisional Regulations on the Protection of Aquatic Resources Reproduction (Draft); in July 1957, the State Council further published Supplementary Provisions on the Order regarding Motorized Trawl Fisheries Closed Fishing Areas of the Bohai Sea,the Yellow Sea and the East China Sea; in the same month, the Ministry of Aquaculture introduced Instructions on the Disposal of Fishing Vessels Intruding into Closed Fishing Zones; in April 1962, the Ministry issued Notice on Deterring Fishing Practices of Ship-hull Knocking (known as“Qiaogu fishing”);and a Pilot Scheme of the Protection of Chinese Shrimp's Reproduction formulated by the Ministry was approved and forwarded in July 1962 (Huang, 1999).

Despite the related promulgations, China's fisheries management system had not really came into being,for the objective laws of fishing production were insufficiently understood at that time, and there was little in-depth research on theories of fisheries management.Consequently, China's fisheries management measures were not serialized and institutionalized, and its capture fisheries were still in its infancy during this period.

2.2. Formation of China's capture fisheries management system

After the reform and opening up,China began to attach importance to capture fisheries management. In February 1979, the State Council promulgated Regulations on the Reproduction and Conservation of Fisheries Resources, which serves as a legal basis for aquatic resources protection.In 1979,the State General Bureau of Aquatic Product issued

Interim Provisions on Several Issues concerning Fisheries Licenses, Interim Regulations on the Fisheries Administration, and Interim Measures on the Management of Fisheries Administration Vessels, thereby providing a preliminary legal framework for carrying out fisheries administration in China. The 1982 Marine Environmental Protection Law of the People's Republic of China, the 1984 Law of the People's Republic of China on Prevention and Control of Water Pollution, together with the 1989 Environmental Protection Law of the People's Republic of China have jointly laid a legal foundation for the protection of fisheries waters. Fisheries Law of the People's Republic of China (Fisheries Law), adopted in 1986,marks the formation of China's fisheries management system, after which ushered in an era of comprehensive management for capture fisheries (Huang & Tang, 2010).

According to incomplete statistics, nearly a thousand national and local fisheries laws, regulations and rules have been formulated and promulgated in China since the reform and opening-up.Various aspects of fisheries management are covered, including: fisheries production management, fisheries resource conservation, fisheries water environmental protection and management, fisheries vessel management,fisheries port management, distant water fisheries management, fisheries management concerning foreign affairs, supervision and management of fisheries administration, etc. (Huang & Tang, 2010). Based on Fisheries Law, China is thought to have initially formed a fisheries management system with a complete structure and potentially powerful measures for constant improvement and reinforcement.

2.3. Development of China's fisheries policies

After the founding of PRC, fisheries output once came mainly from marine fishing and freshwater fishing. The Second Plenary Session of the Eighth Conference of the Communist Party of China (CPC) put forward the guiding principle of “simultaneously developing aquaculture and capture fisheries” in 1959, but it was not until 1988 that aquaculture production dominated fisheries output(China Aquaculture Sustainable Development Strategy Research Team, 2013).

In 1985, the CPC Central Committee and the State Council issued the Directive on Relaxing Policies and Accelerating Aquaculture Development, which made clear the following major fisheries policies:allow aquaculture production to be contracted to households, lift the control of aquatic product prices, and carry out market regulation.Those practices helped to facilitate the prosperity of China's fisheries.The 1986 Fisheries Law has adopted a policy that calls for simultaneous development of aquaculture, fishing and processing, with special emphasis on aquaculture and with priority given to different pursuits in accordance with local conditions. This policy has greatly promoted the rapid development of China's fisheries, especially in the aquaculture sector. China's aquaculture production began to exceed its capture harvest since 1988, with its aquatic products ranking first in the world in terms of the production volume from 1990 (China Aquaculture Sustainable Development Strategy Research Team, 2013).

In 1995, upon the approval of the State Council, the Ministry of Agriculture (MoA) announced the implementation of a summer fishing moratorium in the East China Sea and the Yellow Sea;while the closed areas were expanded to cover the Yellow Sea area north of 35°N in 1998,and then to the South China Sea area north of 12°N(including the Beibu Gulf) since 1999. As a main policy measure to conserve fisheries resources, the summer fishing moratorium has brought significant ecological, economic and social benefits to China's capture fisheries(Zhang. J, 2008).

In 1999, to achieve sustainable development of fisheries, MoA decided to implement a “Zero Growth” policy on marine fishing yield,namely,to keep the expected output of marine fishing at the 1998 level without further increase, and concentrate on the conservation and management of resources and environment. The “Zero Growth” policy indicates that China has shifted its focus from the encouragement of rapid marine fisheries production growth to the conservation and management of fisheries resources.

In order to further control fishing intensity,with the approval of the State Council, MoA adopted a subsidy program for fishermen exiting and relocation since 2002.The central government has set up a specific fund to encourage compulsory decommission of fisheries vessels and subsidize related programs for relocation of fishermen. In addition to fishing effort reduction, the implementation of this policy has also helped to effectively maintain the social stability of coastal fishing areas, promote the structural adjustment of marine fisheries, and alleviate the pressure on fisheries resources imposed by overfishing(Zhang.X, 2008).

In 2013, the State Council made clear China's development philosophies in promoting sustainable and healthy development of marine fisheries: to follow the guidance of Deng Xiaoping Theory,1Deng Xiaoping Theory is a theoretical system regarding the construction and development of socialism proposed by Deng Xiaoping,known as the architect of China's reform and opening-up.the important thought of Three Represents2Three represents is a theoretical thought proposed by the then Chinese president Jiang Zemin to justify the reason for the Communist Party to enjoy Chinese people's wide support through the country's construction and transformation:the Communist Party has always represented the development trend of China's advanced productive forces, the orientation of China's advanced culture, and the fundamental interests of the overwhelming majority of the Chinese people.and the Scientific Outlook on Development; thoroughly implement the spirit of the 18th CPC National Congress;make unremitting effort to develop China into a strong maritime country; focus on accelerating the transformation of marine fisheries development mode; stick to the eco-priority principle, simultaneously develop aquaculture and capture fisheries, and facilitate the production policy regarding inshore fisheries control, offshore fisheries expansion as well as distant water fisheries development; endeavor to strengthen the protection of marine fisheries resources and ecological environment, and continuously enhance the sustainable development capacity of marine fisheries. In addition, the State Council has also stressed the importance of adjusting the structure and layout of marine fisheries production, and urged to speed up the construction of an industrial system for modern fisheries. The Chinese government is expected to improve its equipment, systemization degree and management level of marine fisheries facilities, and continuously improve its comprehensive production capacity, anti-risk capacity and international competitiveness of marine fisheries. Efforts are also devoted to strengthen fishing villages construction, optimize the fishermen's employment structure, and effectively safeguard and improve people's livelihood (State Council, 2013). Encouraged by this policy reform, the targets of marine capture fisheries have been shifted from the increase of fishing production, to the conservation of fisheries resources and ecological environment in a sustainable and healthy manner.

In 2017, with the approval of the State Council, MoA adopted a policy of “Negative Growth” on capture harvest, along with the total number and power of fishing vessels. The policy goals include total control of marine fisheries resources - to conduct quota control over annual capture yield according to the status of marine fisheries resources; implement “Double Control” management of marine fishing vessels - to limit the total number and power of marine fishing vessels for“Zero Growth”or“Negative Growth”;and extend the time-span and areas of summer fishing moratorium (Fishfirst, 2017). This policy was the first time in China's fisheries management history clarifying the reduction targets for marine capture harvest and the total number and power of fishing vessels. It provides a temporary respite for China to restore its marine biodiversity and ecosystem.

During China's fisheries development processes, fisheries policies have always been compatible with the country's political,economic and social development level, and have always played an active role in guiding and promoting its fisheries production. The introduction of each major fisheries policy has been accompanied by the liberation of fisheries productivity and further clarification of fisheries development objectives; the implementation of each fisheries development plan has been intended to facilitate the sustainable and rational use of resources in China's fisheries sector; and the execution of each fisheries management policy or plan has been coupled with the enhancement of fisheries management level and integration of China's fisheries management into the main development track of international fisheries management (see Table 1).

Table 1 The roles of rules and policies in China's capture fisheries management.

3. Practices of China's capture fisheries management

3.1. Management systems of China's capture fisheries

China is home to the world's largest fisheries population with the world's largest number of fishermen engaged in fishing and aquaculture. There were 9.4 million fishermen engaged in fishing activities and 5 million farmers in aquaculture in 2016(FAO,2018).China owns large-scale fishing fleets operating in coastal waters. Its coastal fleets are dominated by vessels with a length of less than 24 m(around 88%),among which small fishing vessels with a length of less than 12 m account for over 68%.At the same time,China has the largest aquaculture industry in the world. In 2016, its output of edible aquatic products reached 49.244 million tons, representing 61.5% of the global volume(FAO, 2018). It is indeed a great challenge to conduct fisheries management in such a country with a huge fisheries sector. Since the founding of PRC, the Chinese government has taken various measures to continuously improve its management systems for capture fisheries and promote the industry's sustainable development in accordance with its actual social and economic conditions.

China's capture fisheries management systems or measures can be roughly summarized as follows:input control,output control,technical control or management measures, economic control measures, management systems of distant water fisheries and international cooperation mechanisms of fisheries management. The various types of management systems or measures are listed in Table 2.

3.2. Marine closed zone for bottom trawling

China began to define a line for its marine closed zone for bottom trawling in 1955; in August 16, 1957, the delimitation line was added by two basis points to the south,which was extended to 27°N,121°10′E;and in May 6, 1980, a complete closed area was formed along the continental coast. The area at the landward side of this line prohibits the operation of bottom trawling throughout the whole year. This policy contributes to the maintenance and rational use of coastal fisheries resources, and plays a positive role in strengthening fisheries management, protecting small-scale fisheries, safeguarding China's marine resources rights and interests, promoting fisheries production and consolidating border control.

3.3. Fisheries license system

The fisheries license system adopted in 1979 is one of the management systems implemented by China's competent national administrative departments for the plan and control of fisheries operation and production.China's fisheries license system was initially determined by Regulations on the Reproduction and Conservation of Fisheries Resources promulgated by the State Council in 1979. In the same year, the State General Bureau of Aquatic Product issued Interim Provisions on Several Issues Concerning Fisheries License. The fishing license system was defined by Fisheries Law in 1986. In accordance with the provisions of Fisheries Law and its implementing regulations, MoA formulated and promulgated Administrative Regulations on Fishing Licenses, and made specific provisions regarding the fishing license system in waters under Chinese jurisdiction. Fisheries Law, as amended in 2000, strengthens relevant provisions of the fishing license system and further establishes an aquaculture license system. In general, fishing license issuance is premised on the status of fisheries resources,and the number of fishing licenses issued is determined on the basis of biomass and Total Allowable Catch(TAC).However,this prerequisite is often neglected in China's practices, so the system only plays a very limited role in conserving fisheries resources.

Table 2 The systems and measures of China's capture fisheries management.

3.4. Fisheries resources protection fees

In the late 1980s, the Chinese Government began to charge fisherman fees for fisheries resources protection. According to this system,fisheries administrative departments work out plans and take measures to enhance fish stocks in fisheries waters under their jurisdiction. They collect fees from affiliations and fishermen profiting by fishing in such waters, and devote the money for fish stocks conservation and enhancement. The protection fees are used for the following purposes:purchase fry for enhancement and release, buying supporting facilities required for cultivating seedlings;constructing artificial reefs,fish nests and other enhancement facilities in inshore and inland waters; lending fishermen production revolving funds (which cannot be used as living subsidies and working capital) to assist their relocation to other industries or businesses; providing scientific research subsidies for fisheries resources enhancement; and offering financial assistance for improving management methods of enhancement and protection, as well as monitoring fisheries resources. The fisheries resources protection fees have added to the fisher's operation costs, thereby reducing their fishing effort. This system has played an important role in the enhancement and protection of fisheries resources and the construction of fisheries law enforcement team in China.

3.5. Input control system

In 1987,China began to implement a total control system over both the total number of marine engine-powered fishing vessels and their total engine power,which is referred to as“Double Control”system(Ou et al., 2011). The State formulated certain limits on marine fishing vessels and fishing gears before giving corresponding instructions to the provinces, autonomous regions and municipalities directly under the central government. The number of marine fishing licenses approved and issued by regional fisheries administrative departments is not allowed to exceed the state-given limits. Since 2003, the management of this control system has been constantly strengthened. Both the total number of marine fishing vessels and the size of main engine power have been reduced to some extent, with the increase of vessel number being particularly curbed (declining from 222.4 thousand in 2003 to 166.3 thousand in 2018; China Fishery Statistical Year Book, 2003 &2018).However,this system failed to contain the growth momentum of fishing effort,in particular that of the total power of fishing vessels.As a result, China's “Double Control” system for marine fishing vessels has not fully achieved the expected effect in fisheries management, and its overall operation proves to be inefficient (Sun et al., 2016).

3.6. Seasonal fishing moratorium system in China

A summer moratorium of marine fishing was adopted in the East Sea and the Yellow Sea in 1995. Apart from limiting fishing gears, all marine fishing operations are suspended for 2-3.5 months during the summer seasons each year, and different sea areas have different moratorium policies. Meanwhile, the local governments in coastal regions also close all stake net fishing in their waters for no less than 2 months during the summer every year. In 1998, China began to adjust the operating hours and the types of fishing gears for its summer fishing moratoriums. In 1999, the closed areas were extended to the South China Sea, while the closed time of the Yellow Sea was prolonged and that of the waters in Fujian Province was also adjusted. This proves to be one of China's largest fisheries management systems in place, involving the largest fishermen population and taking up the longest implementation time. The system is constantly under annual adjustment and perfection in terms of sea areas, operating types, time arrangements,etc.Coastal fisheries administrative authorities at all levels work hard to ensure that the management is well-arranged and that the rate of fishing vessels subject to fishing closures per year reaches more than 95% (Zhang. J, 2008). Since 2017, the summer fishing moratorium has been prolonged: stake net fishing closure is extended from 2 months to 3 months; the closed times for all operating types are uniformly extended from 2-3.5 months-4.5 months, except for the line fishery. It is admitted that China's summer fishing moratorium system offers spawning groups and juvenile fish stocks appropriate protection within a certain period of time, thereby giving fisheries resources an opportunity and enough space to grow and develop,and improving the resource volumes and capture yields of the year. The policy also contributes to reducing the annual at-sea operating time, overall fishing effort, and pressure on fisheries resources. However, its conservation effect is completely offset by the flooding of fishing effort immediately after the moratorium. Consequently, this system has little significant effect in long-term conservation and restoration of fisheries resources.

In addition to the summer moratorium of marine fishing,China also adopts a spring fishing moratorium policies both in the Yangzi River and in the Zhujiang River. MoA has started to implement a 3-month spring fishing closure in the middle and lower Yangzi River from 2002,and the Yangzi River fishing moratorium has been in full operation with the approval of the State Council since 2003. The areas include mainstreams and some primary tributaries of the Yangzi River from Deqin County in Yunnan Province down to the river mouth, together with Poyang Lake area,Dongting Lake area.The closed time at the upstream side of Gezhou Dam is from February 1 to April 30 each year, and that of the downstream side of the Dam ranges between April 1 and June 30 each year. All fishing operations are prohibited during this period(Yangtze Fisheries Resources Management Committee, 2011). In December 23,2015, MoA issued a notice about the adjustment of the Yangzi River fishing moratorium from January 1, 2016. It attempts to expand the closed areas to cover mainstreams and primary tributaries of the Yangtze River along with important lakes; unify and extend the closed period from 0 o'clock in March 1 to 24 o'clock in June 30; and prohibit all fishing operations during time and area closures(Li,2016).More than 50,000 fishing vessels and 180,000 fishermen in over 400 counties (cities, districts) in 10 provinces along the Yangtze River are engaged (Li, 2016). This policy is of utmost importance in conserving aquatic biological resources of the Yangzi River, protecting the ecological environment of the river basin, preserving biodiversity and ecological balance, and safeguarding national ecological security and food security (Li, 2016).

With the approval of the State Council in 2011, China introduced the Zhujiang River spring fishing moratorium from 12 o'clock in April 1 to 12 o'clock in June 1 each year, covering mainstreams, primary tributaries and sea-connected lakes of six provinces (districts) of Jiangxi,Hunan, Guangdong, Guangxi, Guizhou and Yunnan. All fishing operations are subject to prohibition during the process (Ministry of Agriculture, 2010). The system was further adjusted and perfected by MoA in February 2017,which extended the time closure from 0 o'clock in March 1 to 24 o'clock in June 30, and expanded the closed areas to include mainstream river sections of the Minjiang River in Fujian Province, and the Nandu River, the Wanquan River and the Changhua River in Hainan Province (Ministry of Agriculture, 2017). Through policy implementation, there was marked increase in the quantity and quality of caught fish stocks, but its effect was limited (Han et al.,2015).

Like the summer moratorium of marine fishing, inland fishing closures generally promise certain space and time for the growth of fisheries resources,promoting their conservation to some extent.Ecological environment deterioration and overfishing contribute to the decline of fisheries resources in rivers and lakes. Hence, sustainable fisheries in inland waters will only be realized through comprehensive application of multiple measures and systems, including ecological environment restoration of fisheries water, TAC, fishermen exiting and relocation system, closed fishing seasons, etc.

The fisheries management systems in China described above basically belong to input control systems and technical control measures.To date, input control and technical control still remain the most extensive and earliest-applied fisheries management measures worldwide,which are commonly used by both developing and developed countries.Moreover, most countries have made clear provisions regarding input control systems in their fisheries regulations. Although more than a century of state implementations have contributed to world fisheries resources conservation, countries have realized via their practices that this system can not effectively contain the continued growth of fishing efforts and the resources are subject to further decline during this process.

China's input control system and technical control measures have achieved a certain level of protection of fisheries resources. However,due to the limitations of the system itself and insufficient enforcement of fisheries laws, the designed protection measures have not been fully implemented. As a result, the fishing intensity still far exceeds the carrying capacity of resources,and fisheries resources are on a constant decline.

3.7. Catch quota system

The catch quota system, though established by Fisheries Law amended in 2000, has posed a great challenge for the Chinese government in terms of its implementation. Since China is mostly engaged in multi-species fisheries and has a huge number of fishing vessels,it is difficult for those species and vessels to be matched with corresponding law enforcement and management measures.And quota allocation may potentially change a fisheries operating system. As a response, China has adopted a prudent and positive attitude towards the implementation of this system. The catch quota pilot projects of swimming crab(Portunus trituberculatus) and jellyfish (Rhopilema esculentum) were respectively launched in northern Zhejiang Province and Laizhou Bay of Shandong Province. The projects planned to define their TACs and catch-quota allocations, and established a series of supporting systems,including: catch logbook management, catch trading in designated market areas, fishing vessel inspection process, fisheries observer system, marine regulatory system, reward and punishment system, as well as catch-quota precautionary mechanism (Chen, 2017). In 2018,pilot programs have been expanded to five provinces: Zhejiang, Shandong, Liaoning, Fujian and Guangdong. As for pilot species, Zhejiang includes silver anchovy (Engraulis japonicas) in its pilot list; Shandong continues to set catch quota for jellyfish(Ropilema esculentum),Liaoning selects Chinese prawn(Fenneropenaeus chinensis)from certain waters in the Pulandian region of Dalian; Fujian has selected swimming crab(Portunus trituberculatus) from the waters of Zhangzhou City; while Guangdong has chosen cowrie shell(Monetaria moneta)in the Zhujiang River estuary (China Fisheries, 2018). As scheduled, coastal provinces in China should choose at least one area with relatively mature conditions for catch quota management by 2020. These pilot projects represent a concrete step to promote the implementation of a catch quota system in China. They are conducive to solve difficult implementation problems, find a feasible way for the effective conservation of fisheries resources, and explore a new model for the rational utilization of fisheries resources in China.

3.8. Fisheries ecological environment protection and restoration

China has continuously strengthened its efforts in fisheries ecological environmental protection and restoration. Artificial reefs and marine ranching have been built up, and the enhancement and releasing measures have had a remarkable effect. Up to 2015, China has established 492 national aquatic germplasm resource nature reserves together with 23 national aquatic organisms nature reserves, which play an important role in fisheries resources conservation (China Fisheries, 2018).

3.9. Distant water fisheries management system

Distant water fisheries are fisheries conducted by citizens, legal persons or other organizations of PRC in marine waters on high seas or in areas under the jurisdiction of other countries, as well as supporting processing, resupply and product transport activities, except the operations in the Yellow Sea, the East China Sea and the South China Sea(Bureau of Fisheries. PRC, 2017). China introduced an application and approval system for distant water fisheries projects.Enterprises wishing to engage in distant water fisheries should first apply to their provincial authorities and gain the approval of MoA before obtaining the qualification for those activities.MoA grants the enterprises top those with the qualifications necessary for distant water fisheries and no record of illegal activities or violations (Bureau of Fisheries. PRC, 2017). MoA implements an annual review of engaged enterprises, and checks their overseas operations through fishing vessel inspection, position monitoring and verification of overseas embassies and consulates. Due punishment will be given for any detected major problem (Ocean &Fishery, 2015). China has also taken a series of measures to regulate distant water fishing vessels. From 2007, MoA has started to progressively implement a monitoring system for the position of distant water fishing vessels, which are required to be equipped with position monitoring equipment and integrated into the distant water fishing vessel position monitoring system of MoA; it has also developed a standardized catch logbook system, requiring fishing vessels to accurately fill in logbooks and hand them in to fisheries authorities; national observers have also been sent to large fishing vessels operating on the high seas (Wang, 2013). Fishing vessels engaged in distant water fisheries are subject to examinations of fishing vessel inspection departments and registration with fishing port regulatory agencies before obtaining relevant certificates. The crew are required to be trained by MoA-approved professional bodies, pass the exams of MoA-authorized fishing port or administration regulatory agencies, and have more than 1 year of marine fishing experiences (Bureau of Fisheries. PRC, 2017). Moreover, as a member of 7 Regional Fisheries Management Organizations(RFMOs), China is actively engaged in the negotiation of fisheries management measures in these regions. The waters under the jurisdiction of those RFMOs basically include all operating areas of Chinese distant water fishing vessels. Meanwhile, China has signed 8 Fisheries Agreements or Memorandums of Understandings with other countries or regions, which define the terms and conditions regarding the access rights and operations of Chinese fishing vessels (China Fisheries, 2018).

To sum up, China has basically established a distant water fisheries management system compatible with the international fisheries management rules (Wang, 2013). Those systems require further improvement and specification in order to be compatible with the increasingly stringent international fisheries management system.

3.10. International cooperation mechanisms for fisheries management

In accordance with the spirit of the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea (UNCLOS), signed in 1982 and in force in 1994, China has established various international cooperation mechanisms for fisheries management with neighboring countries. China and Japan signed the Sino-Japanese Fisheries Agreement on November 11, 1997,which officially entered into force from June 1,2000. China and South Korea signed the Sino-Korean Fisheries Agreement on the August 3,2000,which came into effect on June 3,2001.China and Vietnam signed the

Sino-Vietnam Fisheries Agreement in Beibu Gulf on December 25, 2000,which went into operation in June 30, 2004. Those bilateral fisheries agreements have each established their own joint fisheries committees.They require the parties to undertake long-term fisheries cooperation in the spirit of mutual benefit in the waters of provisional measures or in common fishing areas, and to jointly develop measures for the conservation, management and sustainable use of biological resources in common fishing areas. Overall, these international cooperation mechanisms are under smooth operation, but management cooperation has not been carried out sufficiently in co-managed regions.

Over the past decades, especially since the reform and opening up,China has continuously introduced advanced fisheries management philosophies and invested a huge amount of human and material resources in fisheries management, promoting the prosperity of five major industries,namely,aquaculture,capture fisheries,processing and logistics, enhancement, and entertainment fisheries. Great achievements can be seen in the initial establishment of a modern fisheries industry, the dynamic harmony between fisheries activities and ecological environment, constantly intensified restoration of fisheries ecoenvironment, and marked improvement of regulating fisheries by law(China Fisheries, 2017). Due to the characteristics of Chinese fisheries and the complexity and uncertainty of fisheries itself, there are still some prominent problems in the industry in China:overfishing remains rampant over a long period of time, major fish spawning grounds are deteriorating, fisheries resources suffer from gradual decline, and the green and sustainable development of fisheries becomes increasingly difficult to be realized; the quality and safety risks of aquatic products continue to increase, illegal drug abuse still exists, and water pollution exerts a strong negative impact;the combination of currently imperfect legal system for fisheries and weak implementation of fisheries administration imposes a challenge for the governance of fisheries by laws, and the existing legal and regulatory system often struggles to meet with the demands of new conditions and tasks (China Fisheries,2018). It is therefore imperative to continuously introduce new philosophies and methods regarding fisheries management, improve fisheries laws and regulations as well as the fisheries management system,and provide solutions to difficult management problems,so as to secure the stable and sustainable development of China's fisheries.

4. Prospect of China's fisheries management

The 13th Five-year National Development Plan for Fisheries, the 13th Five-year National Development Plan for Distant Water Fisheries(2016-2020), the “Negative Growth” Plan for marine capture fisheries released by MoA in 2007, and the Guidance of the General Office of the State Council on strengthening the protection of aquatic organisms in the Yangtze River issued in 2018 have made clear the direction for the development of China's fisheries management in the next few years.In the long run, China's capture fisheries management research will focus on innovating or introducing more advanced fisheries management philosophies, and setting up a more effective management system for capture fisheries in accordance with China's industrial realities.

4.1. Full implementation of total catch control system for marine fisheries resources

One of the major trends in the management and development of China's capture fisheries is to implement a total catch control system of marine fisheries resources (Fishfirst, 2017). The first step is to determine its TAC compatible with fisheries resources. The resources can only be restored to sustainable levels by defining suitable TACs and strictly implementing control measures. China is mostly engaged in multi-species capture fisheries, so there are many difficulties in determining a TAC. It is not clear whether to determine TACs based on different species or not. At present, most catch-quota pilot projects in China only include single-species fisheries, and more theoretical research and pilot practices are needed before implementing TAC control in multi-species fisheries. Even if TACs are determined, then how to ensure the fair and reasonable distribution of TAC will impose further challenges for fisheries resources management.

4.2. The larger-scale reduction of production capacity in capture fisheries

A prerequisite for the implementation of a TAC system is to reduce the production capacity in capture fisheries,namely,via fisheries vessel decommissioning, the transfer of fishers to other industries. Too many fishermen and fishing vessels will make the TAC system a failure. The effort for vessel decommission and fisher relocation will undoubtedly be intensified in the coming period. Then how to implement related measures? Which industries will the fishermen be diverted to? How to deal with the scrapped fishing vessels?How to ensure that the relocated fishermen will no longer rejoin the fishing fleet? All of those questions are subject to careful studies by our policy makers before decisionmaking. The Chinese government has pledged to the world to reduce China's fishing capacity by 15% before 2020, with an aim of scrapping 20,000 fishing vessels,cutting down 1.5 million-kilowatt in the vessels'horsepower, and slashing 3.09 million tons of capture harvest to keep the TAC below 10 million tons (Fishfirst, 2017).

For inland waters,such as the Yangtze River and the Zhujiang River,the same problems also exist regarding fishermen exiting and relocation.The fishing effort in inland waters must be reduced for the sake of guaranteeing their ecological environment and biodiversity. However,the greater threat to the eco-environment of inland waters may come from water-related projects like river damming and water pollution. It is thus necessary to vigorously regulate and track down those water projects that seriously affect the water ecological environment, and strengthen efforts to prevent pollution.

4.3. Perfection and strict implementation of river and marine fishing moratorium systems

Fishing moratorium systems have limited effect on the conservation of fisheries resources if implemented separately or as major fisheries conservation measures. But if the systems serve as supplementary measures to TAC management and the massive production capacity reduction program of capture fisheries,they will achieve more with less effort in the conservation of fisheries resources. Many of the world's fisheries countries adopt fishing moratorium systems as auxiliary measures in fisheries management (Huang et al., 2009). China has conducted a summer moratorium of marine fishing for a long time and at a massive scale, which gains widespread recognition and support from fisheries management departments, fishermen and the society,and should be continually enforced and further perfected in a strict manner. Meanwhile, the fishing moratorium systems in the Yangzi River and the Zhujiang River also need to be improved(China Fisheries,2017).

4.4. Establishment of a right-based fisheries management system suitable for China's national conditions

It is an important direction of China's coastal and inland fisheries management to introduce a right-based system. The international community attaches great importance to right-based fisheries management, and the United Nations Food and Agriculture Organization organizes specific seminars regarding this topic every year. The introduction of a right-based fisheries system in China will motivate fishermen to protect fisheries areas and resources. It is undoubtedly beneficial to ensure the legitimate rights and interests of fishermen engaged in fishing or aquaculture, create more space for aquaculture development, and improve fisheries management efficiency. However,more research efforts should be devoted to studying how to build a right-based system with Chinese characteristics.As China also has many single-species capture fisheries operations (i.e. shellfish and squid), the individual catch quota system may work in this field.But for the multispecies fishing operations, gear allocations, effort quotas and other forms of quotas can be put in place for differing bodies and levels of aggregation (i.e. communities) rather than just individuals. Moreover,according to the experiences of other countries or regions, fishermen associations act as a critical carrier for the implementation of a rightbased system. For instance, Japan has widely adopted Fisheries Cooperatives Associations for its small-scale fisheries governance(Delaney, 2015); while Korea has assigned the task of right-based management to fisheries cooperative economic organizations in its communities (Lee & Midani, 2015). For this reason, China should also treat the cultivation of self-governing organizations as a significant management task.

4.5. Intensification of resource protection and ecological restoration

Long-term overfishing and aquatic environment damage has caused the degradation of major spawning grounds and gradual decline of fisheries resources.It is imperative to restore fisheries resources and the aquatic ecological environment. The construction of coastal artificial reefs, seaweed ranching and sea-grass ranching needs to be strengthened, in an attempt to create a sound habitat for the production, reproduction and feeding of fish, secure effective protection of key fisheries areas,and assist gradual restoration of key fisheries ground(China Fisheries, 2017). More attention should be focused on building an aquatic organism conservation system, such as sea ranching, aquatic organism nature reserves and aquatic germplasm resources nature reserves. According to our national plan, 80 national sea ranching demonstration areas, over 550 national aquatic germplasm resources reserves and over 80 provincial aquatic organism nature reserves will be newly built by 2020,with an aim to protect spawning grounds,feeding grounds, wintering grounds, migration channels, and other important fisheries waters (China Fisheries, 2017).

The General Office of the State Council has recently put forward a sustainable target regarding the Yangtze River Basin: by 2020, fishing closures will be imposed on key waters in the Yangtze River Basin throughout the year; the construction and regulatory capacity of aquatic nature reserves will be markedly enhanced, with their protection function brought into full play; important habitats will be effectively protected; substantial progress will be made in restoring key habitat;the recovery growth of aquatic biological resources will be sped up; the deterioration of aquatic ecological environment and declining trend of aquatic biodiversity will be curbed. It is hoped that by 2035,the ecological environment in the Yangtze River Basin will be significantly improved; aquatic habitats will be fully protected; aquatic biological resource population will witness dramatic growth; and aquatic ecological functions will be effectively restored(General Office of the State Council, 2018).

4.6. Improvement of the regulatory system and management level regarding distant water fisheries

As the world has universally witnessed overfishing activities and a declining trend of resources, the international community is increasingly aware of the importance of fisheries management.It was proposed by Huang. S. L. in the late 1990s that: a new order of marine fisheries has been established by the international community with a growing demand for the effective management of fisheries resources; countries are required to take greater responsibility for fisheries management;more and more international systems and standards regarding fisheries management are being formulated (Huang, 1998). Flag state responsibility has been greatly emphasized in international fisheries management. Countries have an obligation to build a fishing licensing and registration system,perfect the counting,collection,storage and regular exchange system regarding fisheries data, and improve the training system for fishing crews. There exist certain internationally recognized standards for setting up those systems. As for China, it is imperative to put great effort into their construction and perfection. The measures include perfecting the position monitoring of distant water fishing vessels and precautionary system, and facilitating the implementation of remote video monitoring system of distant water fishing vessels;popularizing electronic catch logbooks; strengthening the cultivation and construction of international fisheries observer teams, and gradually increasing the presence of observers on distant water fishing vessels to meet the requirements of international compliance;setting up a riskbased precautionary system for distant water fisheries to reinforce risk prevention and control capacities,and so on(China Fisheries,2018).In addition,it is also very important for China to improve the quality of its talents for distant water fisheries technological research and related enterprises, with an aim to improve the country's capacity to fulfill its international obligations.

At present,China is not a signatory of Port State Measures Agreement(PSMA), which is considered to be the first binding international agreement specifically targeted at the Illegal, Unreported and Unregulated (IUU) Fishing. The main purpose of PSMA is to prohibit fishing vessels engaged in IUU fishing from using ports and landing their catches.In this way,PSMA not only reduces the incentive of such vessels to continue their operation, but also blocks fisheries products derived from IUU fishing from reaching national and international markets.China should speed up the preparation process and join PSMA as soon as possible.

4.7. In-depth study on novel philosophies regarding the capture fisheries management

For Chinese scholars working on fisheries management research,more attention should be devoted to philosophies and development directions of China's capture fisheries management after 2020, and responsible fisheries and ecosystem-based fisheries management may be the focus of related future research.

There are currently a number of specific fisheries management research questions to be answered: how to conserve and restore the fisheries ecological environment by constantly reducing the intervention and destruction of environment imposed by human activities?How to secure active participation of relevant personnel in the decisionmaking process of fisheries management? How to set up a fisheries management system based on fishermen's associations? A number of developed fisheries countries and international fisheries organizations have long studied certain fisheries management problems at deeper levels, such as the ethical dimension of fisheries, the role of gender in fisheries, etc. On the contrary, Chinese scholars have done little research in those aspects. But with the further development of China's politics, economy and society, it is believed that research in related fields will gradually attract more attention from Chinese researchers.Capture fisheries management represents a worldwide challenge, and there are inexhaustible problems to be studied and solved in this area.Only through unremitting efforts, and joint cooperation among governments,industry practitioners,fisheries scientists and people from all walks of life, can the management of Chinese capture fisheries be constantly improved and perfected.

5. Conclusion

The complexity of China's marine and freshwater capture fisheries imposes multiple management challenges on its government,which has played a critical role in tackling the industrial problems and promoting the sustainable growth in capture fisheries with various policy measures. In fact, China's policy changes are closely linked with its historical background.China's capture fisheries management practices can be well traced back to ancient times,with certain primitive official systems setting restrictions on capture fisheries. However, the industrial stewardship maturity was not achieved until contemporary times. The period of the Republic of China (1911-1948) witnessed the budding of capture fisheries by stipulating a series of laws and regulations, which was not systematic and unfortunately disrupted by the Anti-Japanese War.After the founding of the People's Republic of China and before the Reform and Opening-up policy,a fisheries management system initially came into being on the basis of Fisheries Law and a robust structure with powerful measures. Since 1979, China's fisheries policies have become more comprehensive and diversified, with Fisheries Law of the People's Republic of China as its fundamental law and many measures uniquely tailored to China's conditions. The past century has seen the Chinese government's continuous efforts for a suited path for its fisheries development and the role of fisheries policies has been widely recognized.

China's capture fisheries management practices mainly include input control, output control, technical control and management measures, economic instruments, distant water fisheries management and international cooperation mechanisms. In light of building a blue economy, China's policies are moving towards total control, resource protection and ecological restoration.The law-based practices are more oriented for efficient implementation and integration into the major development track of the international fisheries management system.Despite of those enhancements and achievements,certain problems still exist in its capture fisheries. Therefore, the paper puts forward 7 suggestions, including: total catch control system, large-scale production capacity reduction, river and marine closure systems, right-based fisheries management system,resource and ecological conservation,distant water fisheries and new philosophies.

Acknowledgement

The National Social Science Fund of China (17VHQ 010).