IRE1-XBP1未折叠蛋白反应与老年疾病
刘剀葛鹏飞罗毅男
(吉林大学白求恩第一医院神经肿瘤外科,吉林长春130021)
〔关键词〕ERSR;UPR;IRE1;XBP1;老年疾病
第一作者:刘剀(1986-),男,在读硕士,主要从事中枢神经系统肿瘤的外科治疗与基础研究。
内质网(ER)控制着蛋白质分泌途径中的关键步骤,是新合成蛋白质正确折叠为成熟蛋白质的关键场所。细胞分泌蛋白质需求增加、糖剥夺、缺氧和氧化还原环境变化等的细胞应激,会造成未折叠或错误折叠的蛋白质在ER内蓄积。这些统称为ER应激反应(ERSR)。发生ERSR时,细胞启动一系列被称为未折叠蛋白反应(UPS)的适应机制以恢复ER稳态(ER)。一方面UPS大幅降低蛋白质转录水平并介导ER相关性降解(ERAD);另一方面诱导能促进蛋白质正确折叠的分子伴侣和酶的表达〔1〕。若ERSR持续,稳态无法恢复,UPS将介导细胞凋亡〔2〕。一些特化的分泌细胞,例如浆细胞和胰岛B细胞,蛋白质合成和分泌需求巨大,其正常生理功能的维持亦依赖于UPR〔3〕。哺乳动物细胞的UPR主要由三条信号通路构成。这些通路均由位于ER膜上的蛋白质启动,这些跨膜蛋白质能感知ER腔内未折叠或错误折叠蛋白质的蓄积,并能激活下游具有碱性亮氨酸拉链结构域(b-ZIP)的转录因子。这三对“感受器蛋白-转录因子”分别是(i)inositol requiring kinase 1 (IRE1)和X-box binding protein 1 (XBP1),(ii)eukaryotic translation initiation factor 2-alpha kinase 3 (eIF2AK3又称protein kinase RNA-activated like endoplasmic reticulum kinase,PERK)和activating transcription factor 4 (ATF4)及既充当感受器蛋白又充当转录因子的(iii)activating transcription factor 6 (ATF6)〔1〕。其中IRE1-XBP1通路的靶基因参与调控典型活跃分泌细胞的特征性活动,如蛋白质的折叠、转位和分泌及脂类合成、ERAD等。eIF2AK3/PERK-ATF4通路一方面全面减少蛋白质翻译总量以减少进入ER的蛋白质流量,另一方面eIF2AK3/PERK活化和eIF2alpha磷酸化却能促进包括ATF4 mRNA在内的5'端非翻译区具有短开放阅读框架(short ORF)的mRNA翻译。ATF4进而广泛诱导涉及氧化还原反应、氨基酸代谢、ER分子伴侣和折叠酶合成的靶基因〔4〕。此外,ATF4能诱导ER应激相关蛋白〔CHOP(C/EBP-homologous protein)〕〔5〕和〔GADD34(growth arrest and DNA damage-inducible 34)〕〔6〕等促凋亡基因的表达。ATF6调控的转录则主要提高ER折叠蛋白质的能力,但也与其他UPR调控通路有一定程度的重叠〔1〕。
1IRE1 alpha-XBP1通路的分子机制
哺乳动物IRE1蛋白存在两种亚型,IRE1 alpha和IRE1 beta,在人类分别由ERN1和ERN2基因编码,IRE1 alpha广泛表达于各类细胞,而IRE1 beta仅见于胃肠道上皮细胞中〔7〕。IRE1 alpha是一种具有双重酶活性的I型跨膜蛋白,由N末端的ER腔结构域(IRE1-LD)和丝氨酸/苏氨酸激酶结构域加上位于胞质内的C末端核糖核酸酶(RNase)结构域构成。当未折叠或错误折叠蛋白质在ER内蓄积时,IRE1 alpha形成二聚体或寡聚体,以反式作用方式(trans-action)介导自磷酸化(autophosphorylation),激活RNase结构域〔8〕。未折叠或错误折叠蛋白质激活IRE1的确切机制尚未完全阐明,或许是通过其暴露的疏水残基竞争性结合原本与IRE1-LD结合而使其处于失活状态的BiP(binding immunoglobulin protein,酵母为KAR2,人类为Grp78)实现的。BiP与IRE1-LD解离以便与蓄积的未折叠蛋白结合,游离的IRE1形成二聚体或寡聚体进而活化〔9〕。与这种假说矛盾的是,剔除酵母IRE1-LD结构域上与BiP/KAR2结合的位点并不能引起IRE1的持续激活〔9〕。此外,酵母和哺乳动物IRE1晶体结构分析均表明其与主要组织相容性复合体(MHC-Ⅰ)分子肽结合结构域的相似性〔10〕。随后的研究显示IRE1-LD可直接与某些肽段结合〔11〕。这些研究提示可能有其他激活途径的存在,例如IRE1-LD直接与未折叠蛋白结合。激活的IRE1表现出激酶活性进而自磷酸化。然而迄今尚未发现IRE1激酶活性的其他底物。激酶结构域自磷酸化并结合ATP(体外为ADP),别构调节二聚体或寡聚体的形成,进而激活RNase结构域〔12〕。IRE1 alpha激活后通过RNase结构域切除酵母HAC1 mRNA或动物XBP1 mRNA中的一段内含子,拼接后引起阅读框架的改变,从而翻译出具有活性的相应蛋白质,作为转录因子诱导特定靶基因的表达〔13〕。酵母中由tRNA连接酶连接切除后的内含子〔14〕,动物中这一连接则由RTCB/archease复合体完成〔15〕。不寻常的是,未活化的重原子数/X-盒结合蛋白(HAC1/XBP1 mRNA)裂解出内含子而被激活的过程发生于茎-环结构(stem-loop structure)处〔16〕。活化的IRE1 alpha既可以在茎-环结构也可以在非茎-环结构处降解穿过ER的mRNA,这一过程被称为调节性IRE1依赖的衰变(RIDD)。RIDD通过减少新合成蛋白质进入ER减轻蛋白质折叠负荷,从而缓解ERSR〔17〕。最近的一项体外研究显示,尽管IRE1单体或二聚体已具有调节IRE-1α依赖性衰竭(RIDD)活性,HAC1/XBP1 mRNA的裂解则需要IRE1寡聚体方可完成〔18〕。在体内这种底物偏好也许会决定细胞命运,IRE1拼接后激活的XBP1促使细胞存活,而RIDD则促使细胞死亡。然而,不同组织细胞中XBP1与RIDD被激活的程度及其相互关系有所差异,使得最终转归也不尽相同。IRE1 alpha激活后亦能通过与肿瘤坏死因子受体相关的因子2(TRAF2)相互作用而激活凋亡信号调节激酶1(ASK1)和JNK(c-jun N-terminal kinase)进而促进细胞凋亡〔19〕。
2IRE1-XBP1通路与老年疾病
动物实验显示IRE1-XBP1通路与多种老年疾病有关,主要是神经退行性疾病、炎症性疾病、代谢性疾病、肝功能不全、心脑缺血疾病和肿瘤。将其作为靶点将有助于治疗这些疾病〔3〕。
2.1神经退化性疾病在小鼠肌萎缩性侧索硬化症(ALS)模型中,XBP1缺乏将导致自噬增强,进而促进突变的超氧化物歧化酶-1(SOD1)的清除而降低其活性〔20〕。同样的,在小鼠亨廷顿病(Huntington's disease)模型中,XBP1缺乏也能通过自噬降解突变蛋白并延迟疾病进展〔21〕。该研究表明XBP1缺乏是通过诱导神经元中FOXO1基因表达(编码调节自噬的关键转录因子)而促发自噬的。在脊索损伤(SCI)后运动神经元的修复中,XBP1不可或缺〔22〕。而在小鼠朊粒有关疾病进展中,XBP1可有可无〔23〕。在小鼠实验性脑缺血模型中发现XBP1转录本拼接现象〔24〕。果蝇(drosophila)与哺乳动物阿尔兹海默病(Alzheimer's disease)模型细胞培养均提示XBP1转录本拼接现象似有神经保护作用〔25〕。这一概念在阿尔兹海默患者受累脑组织检测中得到了进一步印证,研究表明受累脑组织中存在XBP1转录本拼接和IRE1 alpha磷酸化〔26〕。另一项基于细胞培养和小鼠帕金森病(Parkinson's disease)模型的研究亦证明XBP1转录本拼接具有细胞保护作用〔27〕。除此之外,多发性硬化症(MS)脱髓鞘病变中,XBP1的表达也有所增加〔28〕。
2.2炎症性疾病在小鼠炎性肠病(IBD)模型中,IRE1 beta通过维持ER减缓疾病进展〔29〕。铎受体2(TLR2)和铎受体4(TLR4)促发的IRE1 alpha活化和XBP1转录本拼接在巨噬细胞释放促炎细胞因子的过程中举足轻重〔30〕。XBP1在树突状细胞(dendritic cells)存活与分化中亦至关重要〔31〕。
2.3代谢性疾病研究表明,肝特异性XBP1缺乏小鼠在饲喂高碳水化合物饮食时,甘油三酯和胆固醇合成均较对照组小鼠少,因此可免于罹患脂肪肝(fatty liver)。这是因为XBP1能调节涉及脂肪酸合成的几种酶的表达〔32〕。XBP1缺乏也与胰岛素抵抗(insulin-resistance)有关,XBP1缺乏小鼠可能罹患高胰岛素血症(hyperinsulinemia)、高糖血症(hyperglycemia)、糖和胰岛素耐量异常(impaired glucose and insulin tolerance)以及体重增加〔33〕;通过直接干预FOXO1,活化的XBP1可减轻肝胰岛素抵抗〔34〕。此外,XBP1通过与PI3K调节亚基相互作用,增加细胞对胰岛素的敏感性〔35〕。
2.4肿瘤 基因筛查显示,人类肿瘤的发生与IRE1 alpha的突变有关〔36〕。肿瘤的生长、转移和化疗抗药性的产生与IRE1 alpha-XBP1信号通路密切相关〔37〕。XBP1的表达和活化与乳腺癌(breast cancer)的临床转归〔38〕和胰腺癌(pancreatic cancer)的血管生成〔39〕均有一定关联性。更有甚者,阻遏XBP1的表达可使肿瘤在缺氧环境下的生长严重受限〔40〕。小鼠胶质母细胞瘤(glioblastoma)的生长、血管生成和侵袭倚重于IRE1 alpha上调相应促炎细胞因子和血管生成因子〔40〕。XBP1决定浆细胞的终末分化〔41〕并在多发性骨髓瘤(multiple myeloma,MM)中过表达〔42〕。多条证据链显示多发性骨髓瘤的发病机制涉及IRE1 alpha-XBP1信号通路〔43〕。此外,化疗抗药性的产生往往与XBP1有错综复杂的联系〔43〕。最近的一项研究则提示XBP1的去活化亦能使肿瘤产生对硼替佐米(bortezomib)的抗药性〔44〕。
3展望
哺乳动物ER不仅是物质代谢和能量转化的“生产车间”,也是细胞内外各种信号转导通路的“十字路口”。近年对ER应激反应和未折叠蛋白反应的研究使得ER作为与细胞膜和细胞核并列的细胞信号转导“第三界面”的角色得到阐明。IRE1-XBP1通路作为未折叠蛋白反应三条主要通路中最经典的一条,不仅是细胞内外应激与细胞质和细胞核内效应器的桥梁,决定细胞转归,而且与神经退行性疾病、炎症性疾病、代谢性疾病和肿瘤等多种老年疾病有着十分密切的联系。随着IRE1-XBP1通路等ER应激反应和未折叠蛋白反应调节机制研究的逐渐深入,通过激活或抑制这些通路,或许对有关疾病的治疗有所裨益。
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〔2015-02-19修回〕
(编辑袁左鸣)
通讯作者:罗毅男(1951-),男,教授,主要从事中枢神经系统肿瘤的外科治疗与基础研究。
〔中图分类号〕R34
〔文献标识码〕A
〔文章编号〕1005-9202(2016)03-0737-03;doi:10.3969/j.issn.1005-9202.2016.03.099