河南大学
赵成新
英语第二人称代词不定指功能探析
河南大学
赵成新
英语第二人称代词(you及其他形式)主宾格同型,阴阳性同型,单复数同型,具有丰富的不定指功能。本文运用语言学指称理论和语用学移情理论,探讨第二人称代词you及其相应形式不定指功能的概念、类型、特点和语用效果。
you;人称代词;指称;不定指称;移情
第二人称代词指称说话的对象,即听话人。根据英语语言学指称理论(Halliday & Hasan 1985; Quirketal. 1985),现代英语中的第二人称代词有如下一些形式:
主格宾格物主限定词物主代词反身代词单数youyouyouryoursyourself复数youyouyouryoursyourselves
值得一提的是英语第二人称代词的主宾格同型,阴阳性同型,单复数同型(只有反身代词例外),一律用you。这一点在英语人称代词系统中是比较独特的,也给第二人称代词非常规功能的发挥带来了不少便利,避免了很多像第三人称代词那样要求性、数、格一致所带来的麻烦。除常规的确定性指称功能(即用作呼语,指称听话人)之外,you还有一些平时不被人注意的非常规功能,如不定指功能(indefinite reference)。本文拟探讨的是第二人称代词不定指功能(简称“you的不定指功能”)的概念、类型、特点和语用效果。
请看下面的例子:
(1) “①I’m not obsessed by death, but I’m at an age when I have to accept that my time is about up. ②Youwant to close the accounts and take care of unfinished business. ③Doyouunderstand what I mean?”(TheGirlwiththeDragonTattoo, New York, 2005: 67)
这是美国当下流行小说TheGirlwiththeDrgaonTattoo中的一段话,说话人是82岁的Henrik Vanger,听话人是42岁的记者 Mikael Bromkvist。Henrik认为自己年事已高,想在别世之前了结他过去未曾了结的心愿(他请Mikael协助调查他侄女的失踪案)。请注意这段话中的第②句话,其中 you的指称对象是什么?它与第③句话中的you的指称对象有什么不同?
显然,第③句话中的you明确无误地指称听话者Mikael,并且只指称Mikael,是排他的;但第②句话中的you的指称对象却不同,它的指称对象不仅包括听话者,而且包括说话者,实际上它的指称对象是所有人,这就是you的不定指功能。如果我们把第①和第②句话改写一下,you的这种不定指用法就会更清楚地显现出来:
(2)Youwant to close the accounts and take care of unfinished business at an age whenyouhave to accept thatyourtime is about up.
那么,如何对这种功能进行定义呢?我们可以对它这样进行描述:第二人称代词的不定指功能是指在交际过程中,第二人称代词超越其常规功能(指称—呼语功能),可以像一般不定代词那样指称任何人的一种功能。下面再看几个我们从当代英语报刊或文学作品里面搜集的例子:
(3) I never had any wild crush on her, and that used to worry me about the long-term future: I used to think—and given the way we ended up, maybe I still do—that all relationships need the kind of violent shove that a crush brings, just to getyoustarted and to pushyouover the humps. And then, when the energy from that shove has gone andyouhave come to something approaching a halt,youhave a look around and see whatyou’ve got. (HighFidelity, New York, 1996: 90)
(4) Friday rolls around andyougo home to a partnerless house.Youcould stare out the window, yell at kids, or watch TV. …Youknowyou’relonely. (TucsonWeelkly, 1986-02-05)
在实际交际中,you的这种不定指用法已经比较普遍,不仅在口语中经常出现,在书面语中也屡见不鲜。用Eric Hyman(2004)的话说:“我每天都能碰到这种用法的例子,you的这种不定指用法已经随处可见,或者说无处不在。”实际上,已经有一些语言研究者注意到了you的这种不定指功能,但大多数研究者还没有给予它足够的重视,如Jespersen(1914)、 Quirketal. (1985)都提到过它,但都是一带而过,或者在脚注中做些简要说明。Kitagawa & Adrienne(1990)也关注过它,把它看作一种非人称用法。Hyman (2004)研究过you不定性指称的特点和回指特征。真正把它作为一种正规语言功能进行研究的,当数Wales(1996)最早,她探讨了you的指称功能的不同类型,其中一类就是you的不定指功能,但她关注的重点在于英语方言中you的不定指用法。
一般而言,不定指称的you多用在现在时态的句子当中,表达一种“概括化”或者“真理、道德准则”等(Yule 1982: 320)。例如:
(5) “Youare whatyouproduce,” he said as he left his work. (TheBridgesofMadisonCounty, New York, 1992: 15)
再者,Goldsmith & Woisetschlaeger (1982)提出的“结构知识”(structural knowledge)理论认为,描写现实世界的方式有两种:第一种是描写现实世界中发生着什么事情;第二种是描写世界是如何构成的,以使这样的事情能够发生。前者是对现象的描述,一般用进行时;后者描写的是一种结构知识,多用一般现在时。在描写结构知识的语境中,不定指的you经常出现。请看下面的例子:
(6) Greathouse said he felt some obligation as Adam’s replacement. “The past three games, our running game has been a major factor. So I knew I had to gain some yards. I had to perform,” Greathouse said. “It’s not pressure.Youkeep it inyourmind;youknowyouhave to do it. Out there,youdon’t think about it.Youjust go play by play.”(TheArizonaDailyStar, 1986-09-28)
例子中使用不定指you和your的语篇描写的就是一种结构知识,讲述的是任何一个优秀球员在比赛中都会有的一种思想经历。
另外,在语篇的叙述中,有时背景的铺陈使用进行时态,话锋突然一转,再改用一般现在时描写出现的变化,这里也经常见到不定指you的用法。请看下面的例子:
(7)You’re going down the high way,you’re having a wonderful time, singing a song and suddenly—youget into an argument. (引自Kitagawa & Adrienne 1990: 749)
依据以上的讨论,我们可以把 you的不定指用法分作以下3种类型:
Ⅰ. 场景嵌入型:嵌入一场景,描写在此场景下发生的事情,通过不定指you的使用,使动作行为一般化、概括化,使个人行为延伸为一种人人都会如此的、通行的做法。这种类型常常出现于结构知识描写的语境,我们可以将这类不定指you 的使用看作是语言运用者的知识结构在语言使用的投射(project)。上面的例子(6)就属于这种类型。请再看一个例子:
(8) Yesterday, we went to Sabino Canyon. And I was talking with this guy who happened to drop in on us. And all of a sudden he began to get agitated, and he swung at me.Youreact instinctively at a time like that. I hit him back. (引自Kitagawa & Adrienne 1990: 749)
场景嵌入型不定指you 还包括一个亚类:不定指you + 情态动词。例如:
(9)Youcan buildyourown model ifyoulearn the basic techniques. (引自学生作文)
Ⅱ. 道德准则或真理公式型:通过不定指you的使用表达“一般”的概念,说话者告诉听话者一个说话者认为的真理或道德规范,或者说话者希望听话者分享的一种个人意见,希望得到听话者的认可。这种类型也常常出现于结构知识描写的语境。例如:
(10)Youkill yourself to raiseyourkids properly, and guess what happens. (引自Kitagawa & Adrienne 1990: 750)
(11) “Whenyouget an M.B.A., to be creative,you’ve got to start a business”, Toby Lenk says. “Whenyoudo that,you’re at the top of food chain in terms of respect”.(TheNewYorkTimes, 2002-06-09)
Ⅲ. 生活戏剧型:背景的铺陈使用进行时态,话锋突然一转,再改用一般现在时描写出现的变化,我们把这种类型的叙述方式称为“生活戏剧”型。这种类型并不局限于结构知识描写的语境。前面的例(7)就属于这种类型,请再看一例:
(12)Youare in Egypt admiring the pyramids and feeling thatyouhave really leftyourown world and time behind when suddenlyyoumeetyournext-door neighbor from home. (引自Kitagawa & Adrienne 1990: 749)
那么,you的不定指用法有哪些特点呢?经观察和研究,我们发现you的不定指用法特点主要有以下几个方面:
A.对于Ⅰ型(场景嵌入型)的不定指you而言,都可以被one替代,也可以用everyone或anyone替代,语篇的基本意义不变。如例(8)和例(9)中的句子可以改写为下面的句子,基本语义不变:
(13)One/Everyone/Anyonereacts instinctively at a time like that.
(14)One/Everyone/Anyonecan build his own model if they learn the basic techniques.
B. 对于Ⅱ型(道德准则或真理公式型)而言,所有的不定指you都可以由one来替代,语篇的基本语义不变;但如果用everyone或者anyone替代you,就不那么容易了,就会涉及到一定程度的变化。如例(2)可以改成:
(2’)Onewants to close the accounts and take care of unfinished business at an age when one has to accept that his time is about up.
但若把you换成everyone或者anyone,句子就不通了。例(10)也是这样:
(15)Onekills himself to raise his kids properly, and guess what happens.
(16) ?Everyone/*Anyonekills himself to raise his kids properly, and guess what happens.
C. 对于Ⅲ型(生活戏剧型)而言,不定指you不能用one、everyone或anyone替代,否则语篇的基本意义将改变。
(17) ?Oneis in Egypt admiring the pyramids and feeling thatonehas really left his own world and time behind when suddenlyonemeets his next-door neighbor from home.
(18) *Everyone/*Anyoneis in Egypt admiring the pyramids and feeling that they have really left their own world and time behind when suddenly they meet their next-door neighbor from home.
D. Ⅰ型和Ⅱ型中的不定指you拒绝间接引语中的人称转换,也就是说,即使在间接引语中,仍然可以使用you,不用转换为第三人称。
例(8)可以用下面的方式表达:
(19) Jack says thatyoureact instinctively at a time like that. (Ⅰ型)
(20) Jack said thatyoucan buildyourown model ifyoulearn the basic techniques. (Ⅰ型)
(21) Jack says thatyoukillyourselfto raiseyourkids properly, and guess what happens. (Ⅱ型)
但是,III型的句子如果换成间接引语,其中的不定指you如果不进行人称转换,就会给人一种不自然的感觉。例如:
(22) ?Jack says thatyouare in Egypt admiring the pyramids and feeling thatyouhave really leftyourown world and time behind when suddenlyyoumeetyournext-door neighbor from home.
以上例子说明普适性具有层级感,这可以通过抽象化的层次表现出来。对于一般性的直接描写、以事件为出发点的结构知识的描写与“生活戏剧”的叙述而言,抽象化的层次体现出了差异。这也证明了英语的人称代词能够以有趣的方式进入语言的概括、抽象系统,超越了其自身普通的指称—呼语功能。
E. 不定指指称不能排除它无标记指称的对象。You的不定指用法中,不能把听话者排除在指称范围之外,既不能通过“I don’t mean you personally”这样的表达把听话者排除在指称对象之外,原因是you指称的是everybody,其中必然包括指称—呼语you。
例如:下面的例(24) 就显得不合逻辑。
(23) But I have a gift for teaching ... Plus, teaching fiction writing is a lot like writing.Youhave to examine manuscripts, useyourmind, come up with possibilities, respond to characters in situations. In a lot of ways, it’s like working onyourown work. (TheArizonaPost, 1986-10-03)
(24) *Youhave to examine manuscripts—I don’t meanyoupersonally—useyourmind.
说话者为什么要使用不定指的you呢?我们考察了有关语言学理论,发现移情理论对这一现象做出了解释。移情说是美学的重要理论,由德国哲学家、美学家弗里德利希·费肖尔(Friedrich Theodor Vis-cher 1807-1887)所创立。把移情引入语言学理论并做深入研究的是日本语言学家Kuno(1987),他认为移情是指说话人与其在语句中所描写的事物或状态的参与人或物之间关系的密切程度。Kuno提出两条移情原则:一是“表层结构移情等级体系”,主语所指对象往往比其他名词短语所指对象更容易取得较高的移情值;二是 “言语行为移情等级体系”(Speech Act Empathy Hierarchy,简称SAEH):说话人本身总是比别人更容易获得较高的移情值。或者说,说话人与自己的关系总是比与别人的关系更密切。这条原则可以用公式表示为:SAEH: Speaker> Others。从上面的第二条原则中可以引申出“人称移情等级体系”(Person Empathy Hierarchy):第一人称代词所指对象往往比其他人称代词所指对象更容易获得较高的移情值,其次是第二人称代词所指对象, 而最不容易获得较高移情值的是第三人称代词所指对象。即SAEH:1st> 2nd> 3rd。我国语用学专家何自然(1991)也对语用移情进行了深入的研究,他认为语用移情是指言语交际双方在情感沟通过程中能够设想和理解对方的用意,站在对方的角度来编码或解码。语用移情也指言语交际的一方如何刻意对另一方吐露心声、表达用意,听话人或读者又如何设身处地地来理解说话人或写作者的意图和心态。我们认为,说话人总是从某一个视点或某一个观察角度来描写事物的状态,从这个意义上讲, 我们也可以把“移情”定义为观察事物的点或角度。如果视点与说话人距离较近,则该点的移情值高;反之, 则移情值低。
本文讨论的不定指you的使用,是把语篇中正常情况下应该使用第一人称(I 及相应形式)的地方换成了第二人称(you及相应形式)。根据Kuno的SAEH理论,这样做是说话者用移情值较低的第二人称替代移情值较高的第一人称,也就是说,降低了移情值。降低移情值的目的是:说话者把自己同化于一个人数更多的群体,在交际的过程中,把他自己的经历降格为一个任何人都有可能遇到的一个偶然事件,这样可以减少或消除自我中心主义(egocentricity)倾向,增强陈述内容的客观性,更容易让听话者或读者接受自己的观点,激起他们的共鸣。如下例:
(25) When I got to Oxford, I think the first thing I learned was that for the first time in my lifeyouare totally divorced fromyourbackground.Yougo as an individual. (Margaret Thatcher) (引自Hyman 2004: 161)
这里,在叙述的过程中,由第一人称转换为第二人称,把自己的经历推广为每个在Oxford学习过或生活过的人的经历,同时把听话者由局外人转变为局内人,这样更容易唤起听话者的反应,因为听话者可分为两类:一类是曾经在Oxford生活过的人,这些人听了Margaret Thatcher的讲话,很可能会回想起自己过去的经历;另一类是没有在Oxford生活过的人,他们听了Margaret Thatcher的讲话后,也有可能会设想一下自己在那里生活的样子。如果我们把例(25)改为下面(26)的例子,就可能无法激起听话者上述的这些回想和设想。
(26) When I got to Oxford, I think the first thing I learned was that for the first time in my life I am totally divorced from my background. I go as an individual.
借鉴Kuno的移情理论,通过观察,我们发现不定指you的使用具有以下几种语用效果:
A. 说话者通过不定指you的使用,可以创造直接交流的真实感觉, 使说话者和听话者之间的心理距离消失,从而使听话者与“你”合二为一,这样使听话者站在你的角度考虑问题,更容易接受你的观点。请看下例:
(27) “It is plain arithmetic. All we have to do is to know the figures.Youcan add them up foryourself, and the proof is going to be at the end. It won’t mean a thing if we don’t go and vote.”(TheBuchtelite, 2012-11-06)
(28) Being a campus president isn’t what it used to be. “I’m spending a great deal of time outside the university”, John La Tourette said. “Youcan’t be out on campus as much asyouused to be. … You have to raise funds”. (引自Hyman 2004: 161)
B. 第二人称具有一种对话性,表现在叙事者身上,就是叙述者在意识上一分为二,好像两个自我,其中一个自我扮演当事者的角色,另一个充当评判者,造成对话时咄咄逼人的情势。
(29) “I don’t think anybody runs Sid Bass’s life unless he wantsyouto run it”, says this man. (BridgetJone’sDiary, New York, 1998: 256)
(30) “Youmen just can’t understand the changes women go through every month or the effect that having a baby has onyou”. (引自Hyman 2004: 164)
C.通过不定指you的使用,有时候说话者与听话者分享一种愉悦的经历或信息,有时候说话者表达一种无奈、愤懑或自责。如例(7)表达的是一种愤懑,而例(10)表达的是自己在抚养和教育子女上的无奈。下面的例(31)说话者表达的是一种令人愉快的情状;而例(32)表现的则是说话者对于大众化市场的无奈或愤懑。
(31) In town,youcan leaveyourcar unlocked and letyourchildren run without worrying about them. (TheBridgesofMadisonCounty, New York, 1992: 50)
(32) “That’s the problem in earning a living through an art form.You’re always dealing with markets and markets-mass markets-are designed to suit average tastes…” (TheBridgesofMadisonCounty, New York, 1992: 61)
D. 由于不定指you倾向于概括化和一般化,使共指对象扩大为先行词以外,与其相联系的一个副产品:把句子变成了格言或警句。例如:
(33) The tone of Janice’s correspondence was more reasonable than her mother’s:youcould do an awful lot, she always said, ifyoukept the correspondence pleasant. (DeathofaSalespersonandOtherUntimelyExits, New York, 1989: 58)
(34) Nobody gets to writeyourdestiny butyou. (Obama’s speech at a high school, 2010)
(35) The hard time inyourlife is really good toyou. (美国ABC电视台Bachelorette节目,2012-07-22, Season 8,Episode 11:在上期节目中求爱被拒绝的选手Michael回答节目主持人访谈时说的话。)
E. 使用不定指的you,强化了上下语篇的衔接。不定指you通过动态延伸回指,扩大了you的指称范围,但仍包括了本来的指称—呼语you,使听话者在理解语篇时增大了自由度,这样也在无形中强化了上下语篇的衔接。请看下面的例子:
(36) In one week and two days, I will be finished with nine months of treatment for cancer. First they poisonyou; then they burnyou. I’ve had more fun. And it’s almost over,you’re grateful to absolutely everyone and I am…Being sick actually narrowsyourworld, I’m afraid—makesyoufocus more onyourself. Maybe when it’s over andyoudon’t feel like crud all the time, thenyourspirit soars. The chief reason to keep working is because it takesyourmind offyourself.…Youcan’t get through this without a lot of help fromyourfriends. I had a party for all my helpers after I got through chemo. (http://www.workingforchange.com/article.cfm?ItemID=6513)
上面的例子中穿插使用不定指you及其变化形式和I及其变化形式,使听话者感到自己与说话者处在相同的感受中,上下语篇的衔接并非因为人称代词的转化减弱了,而是进一步增强了。
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