史菁菁,张喜凤,谷鸿喜,商庆龙
哈尔滨医科大学微生物学教研室,哈尔滨 150081
人乳头瘤病毒(human papillomavirus,HPV)有100多型。根据感染部位不同,分为皮肤型(βHPV)和黏膜型(αHPV)。黏膜型又分为低危型(HPV6、11、42等)和高危型(HPV16、18、31等),可分别引起良性疣和恶性病变。其中,HPV16最普遍。HPV除与宫颈癌相关外,还在乳腺癌、支气管癌、头颈鳞癌、喉癌、肛周生殖器癌等组织中检出[1]。有研究表明,HPV感染与99.5%以上的宫颈癌有关。目前,全世界宫颈癌新发病例每年约50万,其中约80%发生在发展中国家。HPV16编码的早期蛋白中,除E6和E7蛋白外,近年来发现E5蛋白也具有癌基因的转化特性,被认为在宫颈癌形成早期具有十分重要的作用[2]。本文就近年来HPV16 E5蛋白的相关研究进展进行综述。
HPV16 E5蛋白由83个氨基酸组成,相对分子质量10 000,为疏水性细胞膜结合蛋白,包括氨基端(N端)疏水域和羧基端(C端)亲水域。在细胞内,E5蛋白主要位于内质网、高尔基复合体和细胞膜上。在宫颈癌发生过程中,HPV16基因组整合到宿主基因组时,E5基因出现丢失,E6和E7基因保持完整性。因此,E5基因的缺失被认为是良性病变至恶性病变的关键转折点。E5蛋白激活的细胞毒性T细胞(cytotoxic T lymphocyte,CTL)可有效杀伤早期病变的肿瘤细胞。Kim等认为,应用靶向E5基因表达细胞的治疗型疫苗可预防宫颈癌癌前病变转为宫颈癌[3]。
Boulenouar等发现,HPV16 E5蛋白损害滋养层和宫颈细胞系的活力,与不育有关[4]。Regan等通过酵母双杂交分析发现,Bap31可作为HPV16 E5蛋白的连接伴侣,并证明这种作用与HPV阳性细胞增殖能力的维持有关[5]。
Maufort等应用转基因鼠模型发现,皮肤内HPV16 E5蛋白高表达可诱导上皮细胞过度增殖,导致肿瘤产生[6]。Maufort等用雌激素处理E5转基因小鼠6个月后,小鼠出现严重的宫颈上皮新生物;E5基因与E6或E7基因联合诱导的宫颈新生物比单独E5基因诱导作用强。延长外源性雌激素处理时间,HPV16 E5蛋白单独表达即可诱导宫颈癌发生[7]。细胞水平的研究也证明,HPV16 E5蛋白可增强E6和E7癌蛋白的转化活性[8-10]。Hu等研究证明,HPV16 E5蛋白表达是双核细胞形成的必要和充分条件。尽管E5蛋白诱导的大多数双核细胞不能繁殖,但共表达HPVE6和E7基因可促进这些细胞繁殖。表达E6和E7基因也能增加双核细胞的形成率。此过程可能使细胞基因组不稳定,导致细胞不断增殖而形成肿瘤[11]。Gao等认为,高危型HPV E5蛋白诱导的细胞融合是HPV相关宫颈癌发生早期的关键性起始事件[12]。
表皮生长因子受体(epidermal growth factor receptor,EGFR)在多种癌症中过量表达,因此EGFR拮抗剂被用于癌症治疗[13]。EGFR在HPV16 E5蛋白致瘤过程起重要作用。HPV16 E5蛋白激活细胞膜上的EGFR,导致EGFR介导的生长信号显著增加。EGFR信号增加又导致环氧化酶2(cyclooxygenase 2,COX-2)上调和前列腺素E2(prostaglandin E2,PGE2)增加。COX-2诱导血管内皮生长因子(vascular endothelial growth factor,VEGF)合成,促进血管形成。细胞分泌的PGE2结合PGE2受体4(PGE2 receptor 4, EP4),通过蛋白激酶A(protein kinase A,PKA)和cAMP 应答元件结合蛋白(cAMP response element-binding protein,CREB)诱导EP4表达,同时PKA诱导Bax降解,抑制凋亡,最终促进细胞生长和增殖[2](图1)。Kim等也发现,HPV16 E5蛋白通过激活EGFR、丝裂原活化蛋白激酶的激酶/细胞外信号调节激酶1/2(mitogen-activated protein kinase kinase/extracellular signal-regulated kinase 1/2,MEK/ERK1/2)和磷脂酰肌醇3激酶/丝氨酸-苏氨酸蛋白激酶(phosphatidylinositol 3 kinase/serine-threonine kinase,PI3K/Akt)增加VEGF表达,表明HPV16 E5蛋白在宫颈癌的血管生成过程中起重要作用,同时表明EGFR信号通路有重要作用[14]。
图1HPV16E5蛋白影响主要信号通路的示意图
Fig.1AschematicdiagramshowingmajorpathwaysbeingaffectedbyHPV16E5protein
Kivi等发现,HPV16 E5蛋白影响细胞黏附、细胞运动和有丝分裂信号通路。这些变化可能共同导致凋亡抑制,促进上皮内HPV16持续性感染的建立[15]。Chen等发现,HPV16 E5蛋白与ErbB4(JM-b/CYT-1)的细胞外跨膜域结合并形成复合体。当HPV16 E5蛋白与ErbB4在细胞内共表达时,E5蛋白抑制ErbB4诱导的c-Jun蛋白表达和磷酸化,增强细胞增殖能力[16]。
Greco等发现,与HPV16E5基因相关的miR-146a、miR-203和miR-324-5p等微小RNA及靶基因等是HPV感染和转化所涉及宿主细胞调节中的重要组成部分[17]。
高危型HPV相关癌变过程的关键步骤是病毒游离体(episome)消失和病毒基因组整合入宿主基因组。在宫颈癌细胞系W12中,游离体自发丢失与Ⅰ型干扰素(interferon,IFN)诱导产生的抗病毒基因表达增加有关。Pett等以W12细胞作为HPV16相关宫颈新生物模型进行研究,发现W12细胞中HPV游离体出现自发丢失,与Ⅰ型IFN诱导的抗病毒基因表达增加有关[18]。IFN-β处理W12细胞后,极大促进了从游离体丢失到仅有整合体存留的进程,这种结果反而导致IFN促进宫颈癌发生[19]。IFN-β可在多种受病毒感染的细胞中产生,通过旁分泌和激活IFN诱导基因(IFN-stimulated gene,ISG)诱导抗病毒状态。在病毒感染过程中,诱导或激活IFN调节因子(IFN regulatory factor,IRF)家族中的转录因子如IRF1和IRF3,可介导IFN-β基因转录。因此,IRF1和IRF3是HPV16 E6蛋白和E7蛋白介导宿主防御反应抑制的靶标[20,21]。目前发现HPV16 E5蛋白与Ⅰ型IFN的作用相关。
Muto等发现了HPV16 E5蛋白对IFN-β诱导的抗病毒基因表达的影响。在感染的宫颈角质化细胞中,HPV16 E5蛋白通过Ⅰ型IFN应答刺激促进病毒游离体丢失。在IRF1的特异性调节下,HPV16 E5蛋白可刺激IFN-β表达,进而诱导ISG转录激活。通过IFN信号刺激,HPV16 E5蛋白在一定程度上促进了宫颈癌发生,IRF1在此过程中起重要作用。因此,在HPV相关癌前病变中,HPV16 E5蛋白和IRF1可作为潜在的治疗靶标[22]。另外,Pierangeli等研究妇科门诊感染和未感染HPV女性宫颈黏膜中Ⅰ型IFN的激活作用,与HPV阴性样本相比,HPV16感染时ISG15水平降低,推测可能是HPV对Ⅰ型IFN通路直接抑制所导致的[23]。
E5蛋白通过与主要组织相容性复合物(major histocompatibility complex,MHC)分子直接结合或与钙黏蛋白间接作用,将MHC-E5蛋白复合物运送到细胞表面,激发免疫应答[24]。Campo等发现,E5蛋白诱导的人白细胞抗原(human leukocyte antigen,HLA)-A2减少导致HPV特异性CD8+T细胞对E5基因表达细胞识别下降。E5蛋白下调细胞表面和高尔基复合体中聚集的MHC/HLAⅠ类分子,有助于形成HPV持续性感染,并逃避宿主的免疫监视[25]。
CD1d是一种MHCⅠ类糖蛋白,为自然杀伤T细胞呈递自身或微生物脂类抗原。CD1d下调在各种细菌、病毒和真菌逃避宿主免疫监视中发挥重要作用[26]。Miura等发现,CD1d免疫应答在HPV阴性宫颈上皮中很强,而在HPV16阳性宫颈上皮内瘤变(cervical intraepithelial neoplasia,CIN)Ⅰ级中缺乏。CD1d在HPV16E5基因稳定转染的细胞中表达下调;在HPV16 E5蛋白存在时,CD1d表达下降可能有助于HPV感染细胞逃避宿主的免疫监视[27]。
HPV16感染过程中,E5蛋白发挥作用涉及部分炎性通路,如核因子κB(nuclear factor κB,NF-κB)、COX-2和PGE2等。Kim等发现,HPV16 E5蛋白通过NF-κB和活化蛋白1(activator protein 1,AP-1)上调COX-2,进而调节宫颈癌进程,其中NF-κB发挥重要作用[28,29]。Oh等发现,HPV16 E5蛋白通过刺激泛素-蛋白酶体介导的Bax蛋白降解,抑制H2O2诱导宫颈癌细胞凋亡,该通路包括COX-2、PGE2和PKA[30]。Sudarshan等也发现,HPV16 E5蛋白能抑制内质网压力反应,关键因素是COX-2、X盒结合蛋白1(X-box binding protein 1,XBP-1)和肌醇需求激酶1a(inositol-requiring kinase 1a,IRE1a);HPV16 E5蛋白能降低共表达E6/E7基因的细胞中COX-2 mRNA水平[31]。由于其他生物学过程也涉及这些炎性通路相关因子,其可能成为HPV16 E5蛋白功能研究的一个突破点。
将HPV16 E5蛋白作为靶基因可能有助于对早期宫颈癌的控制[3]。Gao等认为,封闭E5蛋白诱导的细胞融合方法也许能预防宫颈癌发生[12]。Chen等发现,E5全长蛋白能诱导转化活性,促进肿瘤生长,而用E5肽段(第25~33位氨基酸组成)和CpG寡核苷酸或佐剂共同注射可使肿瘤缩小[32]。另外,模拟肽研究主要针对E5蛋白中具有重要生物学活性的功能域,针对N端区域的模拟肽可结合大多数E5蛋白结合的细胞靶蛋白,并与E5蛋白竞争结合这些蛋白。Foy等发现,针对人类表皮生长因子受体2(human epidermal growth factor receptor 2,HER2)和VEGF的模拟肽段可有效降低乳腺肿瘤生长[33,34],然而这类肽药物对正常细胞可能具有一定的非特异性作用,相关研究仍在进行中。
HPV16 E5癌蛋白在宫颈癌发生过程中发挥了重要作用。HPV16 E5蛋白除上调EGFR表达外,还增强E6和E7蛋白的致癌活性,且影响Ⅰ型IFN和某些炎性通路。因此,HPV16 E5蛋白被认为是治疗宫颈癌及癌前病变的潜在重要靶标,但其致癌机制有待深入研究。
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