徐君婷
作为语言的重要组成部分,语法规则是语言成为交际工具的重要条件。因此,如何传授语法知识是我国英语教学的重点。传统的高中英语语法教学以教师讲解为主,按照“呈现课文例句—讲解语法知识—操练句型—布置课后作业”的模式进行,最终目标是使学生掌握语法结构。在反复操练下,学生虽然能在考试中取得不错的成绩,但是不能灵活运用。之后,在交际法理论的指导下,教师开始意识到语言的交际作用,关注语法的实际运用。但是,在教学实践中,教师过分重视语言的交际作用,忽视了对学生语法学习的监控和指导,导致他们对自己的语法学习缺少反思,无法把语法知识准确地运用到写作中。
针对目前我国英语语法教学效果不理想这一突出问题,我国学者深入研究输出假设理论及其对英语语法教学的影响,寻求合适的语法教学方式。新课程要求语言知识的学习立足语言实践活动。英语教师不应简单地讲授和解释语言知识,而要以语言实践为基础;语法教学可以有意识地让学生参与注意和观察、发现、分析、归纳等学习过程,使其接受科学思维方法的训练。
斯温(Swain)的输出假设理论是基于克拉申(Krashen 1985)的输入假设(The Input Hypothesis)理论提出的。克拉申认为,实现第二语言习得的必要和充分条件是可理解的语言输入。假设语言学习者现有的水平是i,那么当学习者能理解“i+1”的语言输入时,其语言水平可达到“i+1”。但是,斯温观察、研究加拿大的基于输入假设理论的语法教学发现,学习者的听、读水平得到了提高,说与写的能力还有所欠缺。斯温(1985)认为,在基于输入假设理论的教学过程中,学习者欠缺说的机会,且教师并不要求他们关注语言准确和恰当。实际上,语言学习是输入和输出同时作用的双向过程,输出可用于验证输入。因此,斯温提出了“可理解输出假设”,它不只是思维转储,还是理解和重塑经验的过程,是学习的组成部分(Swain 2005)。
斯温(1995)提出,学习者能够通过输出使目标语更准确和流利,归纳了可理解性输出在二语习得中的三大功能,即注意/ 触发功能(the noticing /triggering function)、假设检验功能(the hypothesis testing function)和元语言反思功能(the metalinguistic reflective function)。
注意/触发功能指语言输出活动能够使学习者注意到自身语言缺陷,在发现自己与目标语的差距后,有意识地注意语言输入中的相关信息,然后在学习过程中触发“认知加工”,生成新的语言知识或巩固原有的语言知识(Swain&Lapkin 1995)。假设检验功能指学习者在语言学习过程中对目标语作出假设,根据所得到的反馈调整自己的语言输出。针对反馈而产生的输出调整是二语习得过程的重要组成部分。元语言反思功能即学习者运用已掌握的语言知识反思、分析自己和他人的语言形式和结构,加深对语言的形式、功能、意义相互关系的理解。这种元语言活动能够促进学习者进一步理解和掌握语言知识。
下面,以一堂高二下学期的不定式语法复习课为例,评析输出假设理论在英语语法教学中的应用。不定式作为非谓语动词的重要组成部分,应用广泛。经过一年半的高中英语学习,学生虽然对非谓语动词的语法知识已经比较熟悉,但是因为对不定式在句子中充当的成分的理解及实际运用上的认识比较混乱、模糊,在写作中容易出现使用不当、句式错误等问题。本堂课的主要教学目标是帮助学生掌握最核心的部分,即不定式充当不同句子成分,并理解其语法功能,学会熟练运用。
Step 1:学生根据教师所给出的新闻内容进行探讨;教师引导学生聚焦目标的学习。
每年5 月的第三个星期日为全国助残日,为了弘扬中华民族扶弱助残的传统美德,加强学生的社会责任感和人文关怀的情感,教师播放了一则新闻——《多举措加强无障碍城市建设》,让学生讨论这则新闻的内容。以下是教师与学生的对话:
T:In this piece of news,what impresses you most?
S1:The life is very difficult for the disabled and it is great for the governments to make policies for them.
S2:Many disabled people still achieve their fulfillment with the help of governments.
S3:When architects are designing the buildings,they are considering the need of the disabled.
...
T:Great! I am also impressed by the ambitions of the disabled and the considerations of the government. Now,let’s focus on the sentence we use to express our idea.
教师把学生的部分语言写在黑板上,并让他们思考是否可以改写句子,让语言更精练、准确。具体如下:
The life is very difficult for the disabled but they are determined and take advantage of their disability and become mentally stronger.
→It is difficult __________________ and they still decide to______________________.
The disabled people are ambitious and they want to achiever a fulfilling life.
→The ambition of the disabled people are______________________________________.
Governments passed laws which protect the rights of the disabled and they required that architects design adequate access for wheelchairs so that their needs are met.
→Governments passed laws _______________and architects were required______________.
在呈现答案后,教师让学生关注这些句子的不定式结构和不定式在句子中充当的成分。
【评析】在目标语的引入环节,教师遵循“i+1”原则,结合输入假设理论与输出假设理论,通过新闻热点的引入,唤起学生已有的知识和记忆,激发其学习兴趣。改写练习运用了输出假设理论的注意/触发功能,使学生关注自身语言表达和目的语的差异,由此激励其在之后的学习中更关注目的语的学习,促进对新知识的掌握。
Step 2:学生利用目的语完成谚语的补充,并通过观察和归纳,聚焦不定式的名词性功能,通过练习巩固。
1.以下是教师给出的五个谚语,要求使用不定式填空。
(1)_________________ makes a man healthy,wealthy and wise.
(2)It is easy___________but hard_________.
(3)Not to advance is_____________________.
(4)To prevent is better than_______________.
(5)Learn_______________before you run.
2.在半结构化、半开放式的语言练习后,教师引导学生注意不定式在句子中的功能和特殊的句型结构。
教师引导学生观察句子中的不定式充当的成分及不同的形式,唤起他们已有的知识。然后,教师让学生使用所学句型造句。
Early to bed and early to rise makes a man healthy,wealthy and wise.
It is easy to open a shop but hard to keep it always open.
It is+adj.+do sth.
(Sb.)find / consider / think / suppose / make /feel it+adj./n.+to do sth.
教师引导学生观察、思考,探寻不定式和动名词的区别。
Not to advance is to go back.(=going back?)
To prevent is better than to cure(=curing?).
Learn to walk(=walking?)before you run.
学生在观察对比后说出自己的发现。教师板书和口头说明相关规则,让学生在学案中补充完整。
Rule:
to do sth. refers to some specific action to happen.
doing sth.refers to abstract and general action.
教师引导学生通过简单操练巩固知识。
My ambition is________________(finish)the job today.
My job is_______________(look)the children in the kindergarten.
3.在情境化的造句练习中,聚焦不定式结构的形式、意义和运用。
教师先后呈现提示词,要求学生围绕提示词展开联想,并结合不定式的相关知识进行造句练习。
(1)ambition,shoot a ball,Paralympics.
(2)warm-hearted,volunteer,body check.
(3)considerate,designer,access for wheelchair.
(4)beneficial,students,museum.
(5)possible,baby,robot.
学生利用关键词展开想象,运用不定式造句。具体如下:
(1)Her ambition is to shoot a ball in the Paralympics.
(2)The volunteers are warm-hearted enough to give the elderly regular body-check.
(3)It is considerate for the designers to consider building access for wheelchair.
(4)Educators find it beneficial for students to explore museums.
(5)Technological development makes it possible for human to talk with robots.
【评析】在这个环节,教师使用补全谚语和利用图画写句子这两个半结构化、半开放式的输出模式帮助学生观察和掌握目的语。根据输出假设理论进行教学设计时,教师要针对不同能力的学生设计不同难度的任务(卢仁顺 2002)。教师用不完整的谚语和图片作为中介工具引导学生运用非谓语动词,使其根据自己的能力选择不同难度的句子结构,激发语言潜能。斯温和拉普金(Swain&Lapkin 1995)强调:“当学习者反思他们自己的目标语用法时,输出就起着元语言功能。输出能使他们控制和内化语言知识。”因此,在半结构化、半开放式的语言练习中,学生高度关注目标语的形式,并把语言形式与试图表达的意义连接起来,从以语义为基础的处理转向以句法为基础的处理。
Step 3:短文阅读,分组讨论,发现不定式作定语、状语、补语的语法功能。
1.教师展现一位志愿者的博客内容,引起学生对不定式作修饰语的注意。
Since I was an innocent child,I have had the ambition to be a doctor in the future. When I knew from the news report that many people died of disease,I was too shocked to utter a word. Even some people had a lot of medical tests,only to find that no one could give their diseases a name. Therefore,a dream to be a doctor came into my mind.I wanted to be the person who could save people’s life. I determined to study hard,and chose medical science as my college major. My tutor made me join a club to develop my interest in medicine.What is more,my mother encouraged me to work in hospital as a volunteer to accumulate practical experience. Now I am confident that I can make preparations for it well.
2.学生分组讨论不定式作状语、定语、补语的语法规则。学案如下:
Group 1:Infinitive as an adverbial(状语)
My mother encouraged me to work in hospital as a volunteer to accumulate practical experience.( )
When I knew from the news report that many people died of disease,I was too shocked to utter a word.( )
Even some people had a lot of medical tests,only to find that no one could give their diseases a name.( )
What do the adverbials in this sentence try to tell us?Purpose?Result?or Reason?
Can you figure out some sentence patterns according to sentence 2 and 3?
Do you know any other sentence pattern?
Group 2:Infinitive as an attribute(定语)
I have had the ambition to be a doctor in the future.
Therefore,a dream to be a doctor came into my mind.
On what condition is infinitive used as an attributive:
It is used after such nouns as ______,_____,_____.
It is used after the words which are modified by_________________.
Group 3:Infinitive as object complement(补语)
My mother encouraged me to work in hospital as a volunteer to accumulate practical experience.
My tutor made me join a club to develop my interest.
讨论:
What is the similarity and difference between these two sentences?
If the second sentence is transformed to passive voice(被动语态),what should it be?
学生以小组为单位分别讨论后,综合归纳不定式作修饰语的语法规则。教师补充并指导学生完成学案的语法表格(见下表)。
【评析】在语法学习过程中,教师不仅帮助学生构建语法结构,还帮助他们提升自学能力。在发现和思考的过程中掌握语言知识,可以使学生在实际情境中正确运用。最早开始外语自主学习研究的霍尔克(Holec 1981)将 LA(Learner Autonomy)定义为对自己学习负责的能力。他认为,LA 不是一种行为,而是一种可以通过后天培养的能力。因此,在之前的教学过程中,教师已经带领学生认识了不定式作为动名词的用法。在这里,教师完全可以把自主权还给学生,充当旁观者,在他们需要时及时给予适当帮助,以此促进其探索和自主学习能力的提升。
Step 4:教师给出思维导图(见下页图),让学生以小组合作方式共同完成一篇关于儿童慈善家的写作(词数约100),并提醒其在写作中关注不定式的运用。
在学生完成写作后,教师要求其互相评价,并选择一两篇文章在课堂上点评。以下是一篇例文:
Zach Bonner,an American child philanthropist,is always willing to help children in poverty and raise awareness of homeless children. He feels it his duty to help all the time.When he was seven years old,he decided to set up a non-profit charity organization,Little Red Wagon Foundation,with its mission to help the poor kids and the victims of natural disasters. At the age of 13,he walked from Florida to Washington,persuading others to donate money to the homeless children.I am impressed by his good deed and resolves to devote myself to voluntary jobs so that people in need can be helped.
【评析】斯温(1995)认为,成功的二语学习者既需要接触大量的可理解性输入,又需要产出可理解性输出。学习者只有通过有意义的语言运用,才能使自己目的语的准确性达到本族语者的水平。思维导图让学生尝试使用不定式写作,对输出内容加以控制,在输出过程中尽量使用目的语的语言形式。这样,在学生互评和教师点评的过程中,学生才能比较自己的语言输出和目的语,实现输出的注意功能(冯纪元、黄姣 2004)。学生在同学和教师的评价和反馈下,判断自己的句型假设是否正确。“输出假设”的假设检验功能积极促进学习者调整语言输出,更好地促进其语言内化。
二语学习被认为是一个对目标语不断作出假设而同时对假设不断检验和修改的过程,因此,假设检验环节在学习过程中非常重要。输出是让学生检验目标语潜在的假设。在高中英语语法教学过程中,运用输出假设理论,可以提高学生对目标语的关注。学生在实践运用中能对潜在的假设进行检验,并在生生评价和师生评价中进一步强化目标语学习。