Comparative Analysis of Social Forces Participating in Emergency Management of Public Health Events in China,Australia,Germany and the United States

Wang Shuling,Dou Lele,Lin Xiangpeng,Liu Liang,Chen Hui

(School of Business Administration,Shenyang Pharmaceutical University,Shenyang 110016,China)

Abstract Objective To provide a reference and suggestions for Chinese social forces to participate in the emergency management of public health events.Methods Through literature research method,comparative research method and SWOT matrix analysis, four aspects of prevention,early warning,response and recovery of the social forces in China,Germany,Australia and the United States participating in emergency management were studied comparatively.Results and Conclusion In the emergency management of public health events,China’s social forces play greater role in the response and recovery phase than that in the prevention and response phase.As to its shortcomings,the following suggestions are made,such as incorporating social forces into the national emergency management system,strengthening the construction and training of social forces,popularizing public health knowledge and awareness,clarifying property rights and using incentives and punishment together.

Keywords:social force;public health emergency;emergency management

Since the outbreak of the novel coronavirus(COVID-19) epidemic,many countries in the world are in a state of high tension.As a new type of coronavirus,mankind has paid a heavy price in the process of fighting it.Its long duration,wide spread,large number of infected people with huge cost and difficulty in the prevention and control have been unprecedented since the founding of new China.Similarly,there are other major global health emergencies such as Plague,SARS,Ebola virus,etc.The high fatality rate,fast transmission speed,and short incubation period of public health events are major obstacles that hinder the development of human society.There is a long way to go to control this kind of virus.The government alone is not enough to deal with it completely.Therefore,social forces can play an important role.

1 Related concept analysis

1.1 The meaning and role of emergency management

Emergency management is put forward in response to the major events and disasters.It means that the government and other public institutions have established necessary response mechanisms which include a series of measures in the prevention,early warning,response,and solving the emergencies.It means science and technology,planning and management are used to protect public life and property,and to promote the harmonious development of society.This article is to study the harm caused by emergencies to people and properties and the role played by social forces in the management of emergencies.

1.2 Meaning and classification of public health events

According to the provisions of the “Emergency Response Law of the People’s Republic of China” that came into effect on November 1,2007[1],emergencies refer to natural disasters,accidents,public health incidents,and social security events that occur suddenly,cause or may cause serious social harm,and require to be dealt with by necessary measures[2].

According to the degree of damage,urgency,scope of impact and losses,emergencies can be divided into four levels,namely,particularly severe level,major level,large level,and general level.Public health events refer to major infectious epidemics,mass diseases of unknown origin,major drug and medical device quality and safety events,and other events that seriously affect public health,etc.At the beginning of 2020,the outbreak of the COVID-19 caused Chinese residents looking forward to the New Year to enter a wartime state suddenly.The COVID-19 is a particularly severe public health event.

1.3 Emergency management of public health events

Currently,COVID-19 is raging around the world,but the Chinese people have achieved staged success in the fight against the epidemic.The reason is that the Communist Party of China and the Chinese government attached great importance to controlling the virus at the very beginning.Since the discovery of unexplained pneumonia in Wuhan on December 27,2019,the Communist Party of China and the government have acted quickly.On December 31,the National Health Commission of the People’s Republic of China sent a team of experts to Wuhan for investigation.It was initially judged to be a new type of coronavirus on January 9,2020,but the phenomenon of human-to-human transmission was not determined.On the middle night of January 19,the expert group made a careful study and confirmed that the new virus could spread from person to person.On January 20,the National Health Commission of the People’s Republic of China announced to include the pneumonia caused by coronavirus in the class B infectious diseases stipulated by the “Infectious Disease Prevention and Control Law” and adopted the prevention and control measures for class A infectious diseases.

At 2:00 a.m.on January 23,2020,the Wuhan Epidemic Prevention and Control Headquarters issued Announcement No.1,and the Ministry of Transport issued an emergency notice that the irrelevant personnel were not allowed to enter Wuhan and the road and waterway passenger transport lines stopped operating.The number of people infected with the new virus in Hubei Province began to increase.After a series of prevention and control measures,on February 19,the number of cured cases in Wuhan was greater than the number of newly confirmed cases for the first time.From February 21 to March 17,the rapid rise of the epidemic in Wuhan,Hubei Province,was contained,and the epidemic situation in China was generally stable except Hubei Province.In mid-March,the number of new cases every day was controlled with few cases.Therefore,staged success was made in the epidemic prevention and control achieved.According to the situation of the epidemic prevention and control,the Central Committee of the Communist Party of China made a major decision to develop economy and orderly resume work and production while carrying out epidemic prevention and control[3].

People in China have been working together to prevent and control the COVID-19.In just two months,our country returned to a normal state.In the prevention and control of the COVID-19,social forces played a great role in cooperation with the government’s actions.Social forces refer to the basic units that can participate in and act on social development,including natural persons and legal persons.The social forces involved in major emergencies mainly refer to non-profit organizations and individuals.Non-profit organizations are all organizations that are engaged in the field of public culture and do not pursue profit,including charities,volunteer groups,labor unions,and youth associations,etc.

China’s social forces have developed rapidly,but due to their lack of experience,they are not mature enough.Take the volunteer groups as an example,their participation in social rescue has strong characteristics of individualization,decentralization,and blindness.Most volunteers have not received formal rescue training.Therefore,when these volunteers arrive at the place where disaster occurs,they are normally persuaded to return.What is worse,they sometimes become the victims instead of the saviors.These unprofessional behaviors can waste the limited rescue resource and delay the rescue for people who are in need of help.This has caused a negative impact on the volunteer groups and hinders the longterm development of social forces.

Developed countries such as Australia,Germany,and the United States have rich experience for social forces participating in emergency rescue.It is worth studying for us to provide a reference for the development of China’s social forces.

2 Comparative analysis of social forces participating in the emergency management and prevention in China,Australia,Germany and the United States

To improve the management quality of Chinese social forces participating in emergency events,we must first clarify the deficiencies they have.Secondly,we should learn from other countries (regions) in the emergency management and formulate plans suitable for China based on national conditions[4].

2.1 Analysis of Chinese social forces participating in the prevention of emergency

The establishment and development of new China has enabled the people to live and work in peace and contentment,but they also gradually ignore some potential crises.At present,the public’s awareness of disaster prevention is generally weak,and their common knowledge of disaster is insufficient.Although the enthusiasm for participating in social assistance has been improved a lot,the skills and knowledge about social assistance are lacking.The governance of public crises is inseparable from the active participation of the public.The current aging situation will inevitably lead to a decline in the enthusiasm of social forces to participate in emergency response.

China’s emergency management system is divided into two phases with the SARS in 2003 as the watershed.The first stage is characterized by high concentration and political mobilization.The second stage,from 2003 to present,is represented by the “one case with three systems” (emergency plan,emergency management system,mechanism and legal system construction)[2].Various emergency plans have been improved at both the national and local levels.Gradually,the emergency management standards will be decentralized to the communities.In 2018,the emergency management department was established,but due to its short establishment time and weak foundation,many problems arose when emergencies occurred.Therefore,the emergency management system need to be improved in the future.

In terms of education,Wuhan University of Technology opened the first undergraduate major in emergency management in 2020,indicating that China made progress in the prevention of emergency by paying more attention to the training of talents.In terms of laws and regulations,there are currently the “Emergency Response Law of the People’s Republic of China”,the “Law of the People’s Republic of China on the Prevention and Control of Infectious Diseases”,the “Regulations on Public Health events” and the “National Public Health Emergency Response Plan”,etc.Although these laws and regulations have a wide coverage,they need a continuous improvement.In terms of local governments and grass-roots organizations,they do not have sufficient investment in disaster prevention,which leads to the failure in preventing disasters systematically.Besides,the publicity of disaster prevention is simple,and local communities and villages basically have no disaster prevention plans.Citizens,communities,and villages have little ability for self-help and mutual rescue,which can lead to huge losses when the government is unable to react when an emergency occurs.

2.2 Analysis of Australian social forces participating in the prevention of emergency

Due to its special geographical location,Australia has always been a disaster-prone country[5],so it has developed an early emergency management system.Hurricanes,floods,terrorist attacks,explosions,plagues,epidemics,and insect infections are the types of emergencies that Australia should prevent.The Australian government has attached importance to emergency management since the 1980s.It has established some systemic measures for national education,prevention,early warning,response and post-disaster recovery and reconstruction.It has advanced disaster relief equipment,excellent rescue teams,perfect early warning mechanisms and popular shelters.

The special national conditions of Australia have also enabled the government to incorporate private disaster prevention and relief organizations into Australia’s national disaster prevention and mitigation system (Fig.1).

Fig.1 Australia’s disaster prevention and mitigation system

According to statistics from the Australian Bureau of Statistics (ABS) in 2019,Australia has a total population of 25.4 million,and the number of volunteers is more than 500 000,accounting for 2% of the total number.However,the police and fire brigade are only about 70 000[6].Australian citizens have a strong sense of participating in social assistance,so the government relies on a large number of volunteers as the main force of emergency rescue instead of official rescuers.In addition,Australia’s volunteers must receive national standard training with official qualifications.The government has also signed a mutual assistance agreement with private rescue forces,and provided infrastructure and rescue equipment to them[7].When emergencies occur,these social groups can participate in rescue activities according to the agreement made by the government.

As to civic awareness,Australian governments at all levels will educate citizens on public safety through various channels.Besides,disaster prevention education bases and emergency rescue schools are established to enable citizens to acquire the basic knowledge to protect their lives and properties.When an emergency occurs,most citizens know how to protect themselves.In the 1990s,the concept of emergency management began to take root in the hearts of the people.Therefore,the consciousness of protecting the environment and reducing the loss of disasters was formed in the whole society[8].Australia is a good model for disaster prevention and mitigation in the world.

However,Australia lacks a unified command center.Due to the characteristics of its federal system,cities are only responsible for themselves and cannot form an efficient and unified emergency command system.This will lead to the bad cooperation in disaster prevention and control,team mobility,response mechanisms,and equipment deployment.

2.3 Analysis of German social forces participating in the prevention of emergency

Germany’s “craftsmanship spirit” is an important spiritual and cultural representative of the nation.As an important driving force for the sustainable development of its manufacturing industry,it is vital for its response to contemporary public health events.Germany’s emergency rescue is relatively mature and has been a good model for other countries all over the world.Its emergency rescue team is composed of the fire center,the Federal Technical Rescue Agency,public accident hospitals and various social organizations.In addition,there is a supporting helicopter base for rescue.Like Australia,Germany includes social organizations in the national rescue system[9].

In terms of law,Germany has sound laws and regulations for emergency management.The “Citizen Protection and Disaster Relief Act” “Citizen Protection Risk Analysis Act” “Citizen Protection New Strategy”and “Infectious Disease Prevention and Control Act”fully embody the German “people-oriented” concept.

In terms of management,as an important part of the national civil protection agency,the German Federal Technical Rescue Agency can provide technical support and rescue to German nongovernmental organizations,fire brigades and other institutions.Secondly,striving for perfect technical equipment,Germany has strict management standards,which require research and evaluation of equipment before use,regular maintenance and overhaul during use,and retrospective investigation and improvement research after use.German emergency rescue technical equipment has always been at the forefront of the world[10].Finally,Germany has the best management of emergency rescue agencies and personnel.In these agencies,everyone has a very clear division of labor and must perform his/her duties properly.

In terms of the volunteer team,its construction in Germany is very successful.The total number of German volunteers is 83 million.There are about 1.8 million specially trained high-quality volunteers.They are well-equipped,responsive,superb and well distributed.Therefore,when an emergency occurs,they can quickly gather and set off for the rescue[11].Besides,they also have a unified emergency management command platform to coordinate emergency rescue teams,which means volunteers can cooperate with the government’s official rescue force.Volunteers registered in Germany must have at least 40 hours of training every year to ensure that they can maintain their capabilities of prevention and rescue.

2.4 Analysis of American social forces participating in the prevention of emergency

Emergency management in the United States began to develop in the first half of the 20th century.It has been constantly changing with the development of its economy.The “Stanford Act” passed by the US Congress in 1988 formulated detailed guidelines for pre-disaster prevention,early warning,post-disaster response,and reconstruction work.It is the most comprehensive disaster relief law in the United States so far[12].Comprehensive disaster relief laws clearly stipulate the responsibilities of the US government in disaster relief and mitigation.

After the “9.11 incident” in 2001,the US government and all sectors of society realized that relying solely on the government for emergency management has great limitations.Therefore,the federal government proposed to mobilize all social forces to participate in emergency management.The U.S government focuses on the development of a “community-wide” emergency management model in terms of social forces participating in social rescue[13,14].In 2011,the US federal government proposed a “community-wide” emergency management model which included community disaster prevention in the national system.In this system,the government is dominating,and the community is follower for emergency management and rescue.

In terms of public health events,in addition to the role of communities,American educational institutions also opened a series of emergency management training courses,training pharmacists is one of them.At the same time,they attached great importance to emergency drills and carried out different types of emergency practices.This mode of training talents in universities can not only enable them to learn about emergency management,but also can work with the government to respond to public health events and seek more reasonable education programs.It is undeniable that the development of education in the United States is the best in the world.

2.5 Comparison of social forces participating in the prevention of emergency in China,Australia,Germany and the United States

The comparison of social forces in China,Australia,Germany and the United States participating in management of emergencies is presented using the SWOT matrix method,which can more clearly display the internal and external advantages and disadvantages of emergency prevention in each country,as shown in Table 1.

Table 1 SWOT analysis matrix of social forces involved in emergency management prevention in China,Australia,Germany and the United States

In addition to the above SWOT matrix,Australia,Germany,and the United States all attach importance to education of emergency management and have systematic education programs and related experience.However,China’s emergency management education is in its infancy and should be gradually improved.

3 Comparative analysis of social forces participating in the early warning of emergency in China,Australia,Germany and the United States

3.1 Analysis of the early warning of Chinese social forces participating in emergency

After SARS in 2003,the Chinese central government invested huge resources to create a direct online reporting system for infectious diseases and public health events (referred to as the online direct reporting system),monitoring various infectious diseases.Pneumonia of unknown cause is the focus of monitoring and reporting[2],health institutions above the township level are included in the system,which can log in and report information directly.However,in the early stage of the 2020 epidemic,the online direct reporting system was not activated in time.Instead,it was reported in the order of doctor→ hospital leader → district disease control center→ district health bureau → Wuhan Municipal Health Commission → Municipal Party Committee →Provincial Party Committee.Therefore,this system in China has certain drawbacks in the early warning stage.

It is not difficult to see that although there are good emergency plans in terms of early warning,they have encountered bottlenecks in the implementation process.China should strengthen the publicity of emergency plans so that social forces can respond quickly when emergencies occur.

3.2 Analysis of the early warning of Australian social forces participating in emergency

The Australian government believes that an effective means to eliminate disaster losses is to strengthen emergency warning and prevention[5,15].Australia has a complete emergency warning system.First,it conducts a comprehensive survey of the potential risks that may cause hazards and mark their levels.And then it strengthens monitoring and early warning for risk factors with high levels of danger.Thirdly,it uses incentive measures to encourage the public to participate in emergency prediction and early warning because this can improve information collection and data monitoring,which makes the monitoring system play a greater role.Finally,Australia publicizes information monitoring and the public can inquire through the Internet at any time,which not only guarantees the public’s right to know about disaster monitoring and early warning,but also helps the public to actively participate in prevention.A complete early warning system can play a better role[8].

In addition,Australia pays more attention to cultivating the public’s ability to warn of emergencies.On the one hand,citizens are organized to conduct drills for disasters that occur more frequently,which helps them prepare in advance in terms of resources and ideas.On the other hand,residents are encouraged to participate in the information and data collection for early warning,which makes the forecast and early warning more perfect with better result and good effect[16].

3.3 Analysis of the early warning of German social forces participating in emergency

Germany has a complete early warning and monitoring system and corresponding staffs.The efficient work of the early warning system requires high-tech support.The German “craftsman spirit” culture and its leading global scientific and technological level provide a good foundation for this.The tsunami early warning system,radar early warning system,terrorist attack early warning system,toxicity early warning system,fully automatic weather station early warning system,and GPS online displacement monitoring and early warning system can monitor various types of emergencies in all directions[9].

In addition,Germany also has a complete information management system.When the early warning system predicts the coming of a disaster,it can quickly transmit the information to the relevant departments so that each department can respond on time.In terms of social forces,400 000 professional volunteers among the 1.8 million volunteers in Germany are distributed across the country,cooperating with emergency rescue hospitals,to act in the event of an emergency[11].

3.4 Analysis of the early warning of American social forces participating in emergency

The United States has a complete monitoring and early warning system which is in a leading position in the world.The department of the United States for responding to public health events is the Center for Disease Control and Prevention(CDC).One of its main functions is to predict the disease[17].In the process of large-scale epidemic prevention and control,it sums up lessons and experience,and research and experiments are conducted.It can effectively predict public health events so that the government and citizens can better prepare for possible threats.

In terms of social forces,the United States attaches great importance to the cultivation of citizens’crisis awareness and their early warning capabilities.On the one hand,through national exercises citizens’self-rescue ability can be improved.On the other hand,through questionnaire assessment and publicity and education,citizens can understand their abilities and find the direction for improvement.The emergency capability test of the Federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA) is unique in the world[18].As residents have received training on early warning capabilities,when emergencies are about to come,the government and residents can respond well and reduce losses.

3.5 Comparison of social forces participating in the early warning of emergency in China,Australia,Germany and the United States

According to Table 2,China is weak in the implementation of emergency plans and residents’awareness.The management of COVID-19 should focus on early diagnosis,immediate isolation,comprehensive and optimized supportive care,and infection prevention and control.Finding the problem in time is more important than solving it.It can solve the problem in the early stage.Therefore,all countries should pay more attention to the systematic construction in the stage of prevention and early warning.

Table 2 SWOT analysis matrix of social forces involved in emergency management early warning in China,Australia,Germany and the United States

After the termination of SARS in 2003,China drew some lessons and established a sound epidemic prevention and control mechanism,but it was not well applied in the early stage of the COVID-19 epidemic since it was ignored.It can be seen that there is still a lot of room for improvement in the early warning mechanism of public health emergencies in China,which needs to be taken seriously.Australia,Germany and the United States not only have better mechanisms for early warnings,but also have clear assignments in terms of staffing,responsibilities,and appointments.As to early warning equipment,China is lacking it,but Australia,Germany and the United States all have such equipment.Besides,Australia,Germany,and the United States have high participation in social forces which play an important role in early warning.However,China’s social forces play an unimportant role because they have low participation in early warning.In the early warning stage of emergency management,China still needs to develop in many aspects to improve the capabilities of the government and social forces.

4 Analysis of the participation of Chinese,Australian,German and the United States social forces in the response of emergency

4.1 Analysis of Chinese social forces participating in the response of emergency management

It can be seen from the process of fighting against COVID-19 that when a major emergency occurs in China,the government is the most important rescue force that takes action first.For example,the continuous supply of living materials,the rapid construction of Huoshenshan and Leishenshan hospitals,the rapid blockade and virus testing of citizens,or the deployment of medical resources across the country all rely on the government[3].

China has the traditional advantages of mobilizing the masses in disaster prevention and relief.From the perspective of this epidemic,the policy of closing the city was quickly implemented.Most people were actively cooperating.Due to the traditional Chinese new year,some citizens turned a blind eye to the government’s order.This undoubtedly posed a challenge to the anti-epidemic situation of the whole people.Although social forces are participating in emergencies and social assistance is growing rapidly,there are still many problems.For instance,the supplies to Wuhan could not reach people’s hands in time.Another case is the “Red Cross incident”,which is distressing.

Although China has some problems in the prevention and early warning stage,its achievements in the response stage are great.If the government did not respond in time and assemble medical teams to support Hubei,China would not have succeeded so quickly in this epidemic.Social forces still have a great constructive role in the response stage and early warning stage.

4.2 Analysis of Australian social forces participating in the response of emergency management

Australia advocates the concept of self-help when emergencies occur.Self-help is the primary obligation of every citizen.There are 500 000 professionally trained volunteers in Australia.Volunteers are the most important human resource in emergency rescue.However,Australia is a large country with an unevenly distributed population.The insufficient human resources are the biggest problem[6].When a limited national official rescue team encounters a major emergency,such as COVID-19,it is difficult to meet the needs.Fortunately,Australia has a unified information-sharing platform.In addition to its daily business,its telecommunication companies also cooperate with the government as an informationsharing mechanism for emergencies[8],which has played an important role.

As a federal country,the states of Australia are independent of each other and work on their own.When an emergency occurs,the first task of each state is to solve its own emergency.There are few social ties and mutual assistance between states[19],and it is difficult to cooperate within different states during disasters,which is not conducive to the control of large-scale disasters.

4.3 Analysis of German social forces participating in the response of emergency management

The improvement of Germany’s prevention and early warning system is the basis for Germany’s rapid response when disasters occur.It also has corresponding management systems and measures in the early stage.When emergencies occur,various departments quickly cooperate,and the emergency management command platform can coordinate the work among various departments and teams.The fire center in Germany is the backbone of the national emergency rescue team that undertakes technical rescue work.Volunteers are distributed in major medical associations and rescue associations in Germany,and its large professional volunteer rescue teams can quickly participate in any type of emergency.There are more than 2 100 hospitals in Germany,and public hospitals account for about 1/3.Among them,35 public hospitals serve emergency rescue agencies with helipads.In terms of transportation,Germany has 84 rescue helicopter bases,including the national defense flight base,the national ministry of internal affairs flight base,private companies and rescue association bases,etc.The service radius of each rescue helicopter base is about 100 km,and the pilots and soldiers have certain medical knowledge,which can quickly improve rescue efficiency and reduce casualties and losses greatly[11,20].

4.4 Analysis of American social forces participating in the response of emergency management

In the response stage of emergency management,American social forces are the key part of the sustainability of guarantee work.In terms of transportation,storage,equipment and technology,the Red Cross and religious groups in the United States have played a huge role[21],ensuring the last mile of medicines and materials.In terms of actions,the US“whole community planning” model has transformed communities into disaster prevention groups,which has strategic value.In addition,when a disaster occurs,due to the residents’ sense of belonging to the community,they can arrive at the scene as quickly as possible,which can reduce the losses caused by the waiting period[13].

However,in this epidemic,the inaction of the U.S.government ignited mass demonstrations and riots among the US people.To cope with COVID-19,all people should unite and work for it.However,the United States lacks the unity spirit like China,resulting in many infections in the United States.

4.5 Comparison of social forces participating in the response of emergency management in China,Australia,Germany and the United States

It can be seen from Table 3 that the Chinese government plays a major role in the emergency response stage,and social forces are in the weak position.On the contrary,government and social forces are working together in emergency response in Australia,Germany and the United States.

Table 3 SWOT analysis matrix of social forces involved in emergency management response in China,Australia,Germany and the United States

Continued Table 3

The prevention and control of COVID-19 require government departments to act quickly.The Chinese central government always puts people’s lives and health in the first place,so it integrates national forces as quickly as possible to fight against the epidemic.However,as the official platform for epidemic information releasing,the new media of the local government health committees (hereinafter referred to as “health committees”) has taken part in the social governance of major public health incidents.In the COVID-19 epidemic,the 31 provincial-level health commissions’ new media responded to the epidemic at different times.In terms of the prevention and control of the epidemic,the lack of medical resources,such as few doctors and insufficient basic materials in the early stage,caused panic among the residents.These are problems in the prevention and control of the epidemic in China.

When the COVID-19 broke out,governments and social forces of various countries were able to respond quickly.China has responded most quickly in the world,followed by Germany and Australia which are also actively controlling.Although the United States has the world’s leading medical technology,it becomes the worst example because of its government’s inactivity.

5 Comparative analysis of social forces participating in the recovery of emergency management in China,Australia,Germany and the United States

5.1 Analysis of Chinese social forces participating in the recovery of emergency management

When the COVID-19 epidemic is under control,the Chinese government has actively covered all the costs of patients nationwide,as well as the resumption of work and production.Various social groups and enterprises also actively cooperated with the government to control the rapid increase in the number of infected people[3].Although China’s social forces are not active in the stage of prevention,early warning and response,but in the recovery stage,they actively cooperate with the government to restore China to its daily state quickly.

Although China has developed rapidly in economic construction and superstructure,it is undeniable there are some problems in it.The problems exposed by the epidemic have also made China realize the importance of social forces.Even if the social systems and living habits are different,we can learn many lessons from other countries.

5.2 Analysis of Australian social forces participating in the recovery of emergency management

Australia’s social forces come from all walks of life and are active in all stages of emergency management.They can play a good role in recovery and reconstruction.For instance,in the psychological counseling of public emotions,insurance companies in compensation for losses,equipment funding,and financial assistance,they make great contributions to the public.

The summary and reflection of disaster information in the recovery phase are equally important,because lessons learned can help make better predictions and early warnings so as to formulate more complete response plans.A highly integrated information-sharing mechanism plays a huge role in emergency management in Australia.The emergency management system and information department of each city will summarize the information of any emergencies,and social forces groups can also consult relevant information about emergencies at any time.

5.3 Analysis of Germany social forces participating in the recovery of emergency management

Germany has two basic guarantee systems in the recovery and reconstruction phase of emergencies.One is the talent reserve and education system,and the other is the support of policy and technology by fiscal expenditure.In terms of education,the government takes demand as the guide to select and train talents.In terms of technology,government-led cooperation between industrial enterprises and research departments can effectively and efficiently resolve the crisis and restore social order after the crisis,avoid natural disasters,accidents,secondary public health incidents,or re-initiate social security incidents.

The Federal Risk Analysis and Resident Protection Committee established in Germany in 2009 is coordinated by the Ministry of Interior,Ministry of Environment,Ministry of Health,Ministry of Transport,Ministry of Economics and Technology,Ministry of Labor and Social Affairs and other federal agencies.“The Risk Analysis Method” issued in 2010[20,22],incorporates the risk analysis and assessment of emergencies into the law,which is operated jointly by various departments.It can quickly identify the cause,sum up lessons,and formulate response recovery plans and improvement measures.

5.4 Analysis of American social forces participating in the recovery of emergency management

The evaluation and summary of the disaster is an important task in the recovery phase.The department of the United States for responding to events is the Office of Assistant Secretary for Preparedness and Response (ASPR)[23].It builds communication bridges between social forces and the government so as to offer government funding for social rescue organizations,detect and evaluate public health events.Besides,it also provides the government with professional intelligence analysis to improve the overall predictive and early warning capabilities.

In the recovery phase,the United States has perfect legal guarantees.The Stanford Act has formulated detailed implementation rules for postdisaster recovery and reconstruction[24].As a state agency,the government should provide various resources for the social forces so that they can return to normal conditions as soon as possible.In addition,the whole community planning emergency management model can still play an important role in the recovery phase.Driven by the sense of belonging,the primary task of community residents after the disaster is to restore and reconstruct their community.

5.5 Comparison of social forces participating in the recovery of emergency management in China,Australia,Germany and the United States

Post-disaster recovery and reconstruction is the last step of emergency management.From Table 4,we can see that all countries have complete laws and regulations in emergency management and recovery.The government actively assumes the main responsibility for the recovery phase and provides various resources to help the society quickly return to its daily state.At this stage,the participation of social forces is also active,and its effect is obvious.

Table 4 SWOT analysis matrix of social forces involved in emergency management recovery in China,Australia,Germany and the United States

However,from the COVID-19 epidemic,both the government and social forces in China could work together closely.The reason is that China has a tradition of uniting and cohesive strength to fight against disasters.While after the CDC made predictions and reports,the US government was passively fighting the epidemic and lost the best time to prevent COVID-19,which caused a major outbreak in the US.

6 Discussions and suggestions

6.1 Incorporate social forces into the national emergency management system

China’s emergency management system is based on the government’s comprehensive coordination,classified management,hierarchical responsibility,and territorial management.Although social forces can play certain role,they have not really been included in the emergency management system.It can be seen from this epidemic that China has great advantages in mobilizing its people to unite in disaster prevention and mitigation.Historically,China has a tradition of mobilizing the people.Therefore,the advantages in the construction of social emergency rescue forces are obvious.Enterprises,social organizations,volunteers and citizens should be fully mobilized to participate in disaster prevention and mitigation.In addition,it is necessary to strengthen the professional respect for personnel in the field of emergency management.For example,the medical staff who supported Wuhan in this epidemic,were awarded by the government and the society with different ways after the control of the pandemic,which reflects the public’s respect and gratitude for medical staff.

6.2 Improve laws and regulations and popularize public health knowledge

In terms of laws and regulations,the United States has the most comprehensive and complete laws.Meanwhile,the legal systems in Germany and Australia are comprehensive and complete,too.Although China’s laws and regulations cover a wide range of areas,they are not perfect in details and specifications.In terms of disaster relief equipment and social forces,Australia,Germany and the United States all have professionally trained social relief organizations,and government provides disaster relief equipment to social forces.However,China does not have these professional organizations.Social forces have many problems,and many social force organizations do not have enough funds.

At present,China’s forecast and early warning system is promoted and implemented by government departments,but the residents lack the corresponding awareness and ability.The government and citizens should cooperate in the emergency prevention and early warning before the crisis breaks out,compared with the domination of government departments,the former has advantages.Therefore,public health knowledge should be popularized through various channels to strengthen the public’s awareness of crisis prevention and improve their early warning capabilities.

6.3 Improving public awareness and ability of early warning to promote early warning mechanism

After the breakout of SARS in 2003,China learned lessons and established a complete epidemic prevention and control mechanism.However,it did not work well in the early stage of the COVID-19 epidemic.There is still much room for improvement in the early warning mechanism of public health events in China.Australia,Germany,and the United States not only have complete early warning mechanisms,but also have clear allocations of agency personnel and appointment of responsibilities.In terms of early warning equipment,China has less than that in Australia,Germany and the United States.In addition,social forces in Australia,Germany,and the United States have a high degree of participation and play a greater role in early warning,but China’s social forces have a low degree of participation with a minor role.In the early warning stage of emergency management,China should improve the ability of the government and social forces in many aspects.

6.4 Strengthening the capacity and systematic training of social forces to improve response speed

First of all,to improve social forces in China,we should strengthen publicity through TV advertisements,new media,news,etc.This will attract more people with professional rescue knowledge to participate in all aspects of emergency management.Secondly,when the team building is done,regular and systematic standardized training should be carried out to enable them to master the necessary rescue skills.Thirdly,social forces,including social organizations and individual volunteers should be registered and managed.Finally,necessary rescue facilities and equipment should be provided to the social forces by the government.When an emergency occurs,social forces can act quickly with the government to prevent and control the risks.

6.5 The government should strengthen the supervision of social forces

The two problems in the epidemic were the lack of sufficient attention from relevant departments in the early stage and some necessary materials that could not be delivered to the public in time.The irresponsibility of the Red Cross staff was the direct cause,but there were also system problems.We all know that government departments should supervise and manage the operation of social organizations,evaluate their work with dynamic hierarchical management methods.Besides,social organizations should conduct autonomous supervision and management.For example,in staffing,both frontline and management personnel should pay attention to quality assessment and training of necessary skills.In peacetime,drills and ability tests can be conducted regularly,and supervision should be strengthened to ensure that they can better respond to emergencies.In the daily assessment,the incentive mechanism and the punishment mechanism should be used to promote the abilities of relevant personnel in various social organizations.