朱佳琪,马跃文,陈锐
脊髓损伤患者泌尿系感染研究进展
朱佳琪,马跃文,陈锐
[摘要]脊髓损伤患者的泌尿系感染通常与泌尿系结石、排空障碍以及应用导尿管相关,是创伤性或非创伤性脊髓损伤患者最常见的感染原因。反复泌尿系感染会引起肾功能损伤,而为了控制感染长期反复应用抗生素可能导致多重耐药菌定植进一步恶化感染。因此,康复阶段脊髓损伤患者泌尿系感染的预防、治疗方案的确定显得尤为重要。为了改善这类患者的预后,近年来各国研究者提出了许多新的临床经验及实验室方案,本文综述对脊髓损伤后泌尿系感染诊疗相关研究,以期对临床医疗提供借鉴。
[关键词]脊髓损伤;泌尿系感染;诊疗方案;综述
[本文著录格式]朱佳琪,马跃文,陈锐.脊髓损伤患者泌尿系感染研究进展[J].中国康复理论与实践,2016,22(6):676-679.
CITED AS:Zhu JQ,Ma YW,Chen R.Research progress of urinary tract infections in patients with spinal cord injury(review)[J].Zhongguo Kangfu Lilun Yu Shijian,2016,22(6):676-679.
泌尿系感染(urinary tract infections,UTIs)是指细菌侵袭尿道后,引起上皮细胞发生的炎症反应,临床表现为菌尿或脓尿(白细胞尿)。对于颈段、胸段及上腰段脊髓损伤患者,上位脑桥排尿中枢与下位神经元的联系损害,导致下尿路系统储尿、控制及排空过程受到影响,从而发生神经源性膀胱功能损害[1]。这种损害引发的膀胱内压增高、返流、结石以及神经性梗阻会使得UTIs发生的可能大大提高[2]。随着技术发展,医生对脊髓损伤患者排尿管理越发重视,但泌尿系并发症仍然是脊髓损伤患者第二种常见的致死原因[3]。因此,我们将近年脊髓损伤后UTIs治疗研究进展做一综述,旨在为临床工作提供一些新的思路。
外伤或非外伤性脊髓损伤患者中,UTIs的年发生率约为2.5次/人,其中继发败血症并最终致死的患者约占15%[4],而常见致病菌包括假单胞菌属、变形杆菌和沙雷氏菌属[5]。Esclarin De Ruz等曾报道在合格的脊髓损伤UTIs患者尿液标本中,45%可见大肠杆菌,36%为肠杆菌科,15%为铜绿假单胞菌,15%为不动杆菌,12%为肠球菌属,6%为其他菌属,还有26%为多菌株感染[6]。通过进行膀胱冲洗试验及抗体包被试验可知,脊髓损伤患者在间歇导尿过程中,60%会出现下尿路细菌定植,40%出现上尿路细菌定植[7],但上尿路细菌定植引起脓尿(白细胞尿)的发生率远大于下尿路细菌定植者[8]。
膀胱及尿道括约肌神经支配主要来源于脑桥和脊神经骶段[9-10],因此颈段、胸段及腰段高位脊髓损伤患者通常存在上、下位神经控制离断或受损情况。骶段脊神经中分布着Onuf核,这种核团主要接受来自膀胱的传入冲动,并通过S2-4神经根将排尿冲动反馈给泌尿系统[11]。胸腰段脊神经对排尿影响较小,但其中行走的交感神经及副交感神经功能紊乱会对膀胱颈的控制产生一定的干扰[12]。脊髓之上,脑干及双侧间脑构成了主要的排尿控制中枢。其中,脑桥排尿中枢(Barrington核)位于脑桥嘴侧背外侧网状结构内,可以直接兴奋膀胱运动神经元,松弛尿道括约肌开放尿路;中脑导水管周围灰质负责接受膀胱充盈信号,而下丘脑视前区则参与排尿起始的控制[13]。扣带回和运动前区皮质可以抑制下位中枢排尿反射[14]。脊髓损伤使得患者脑桥排尿中枢及上位大脑中枢抑制、调控泌尿系统排尿活动的功能受损,因此,只要脊髓损伤发生于骶段脊神经以上,患者都会不同程度出现膀胱括约肌协同功能失调[15]。
3.1症状
脊髓损伤患者UTIs的早期诊断比较困难,因为该类患者通常缺失UTIs的典型症状,诸如尿频、尿急、尿痛、排尿困难、下腹部感觉异常、肾区疼痛或感觉过敏等;而不典型症状诸如排尿习惯改变、膀胱残尿量增加、尿臭、肌肉痉挛或不自主反射加剧更常见于该类患者[16]。研究发现大约45%的脊髓损伤患者发热与UTIs相关,因此临床上大部分脊髓损伤患者UTIs被发现并重视的原因为出现发热[17]。
3.2实验室检查
临床上当发现每毫升清洁中段尿样品中细菌数≥105或细菌数<105但存在UTIs症状者,可以诊断为菌尿。当清洁尿常规提示尿中白细胞>10/高倍视野时,临床上可以诊断脓尿或白细胞尿,需要考虑患者存在UTIs的可能。Moser等研究显示,大肠杆菌、肺炎克雷伯菌、臭鼻肺炎克雷伯菌、奇异变形杆菌、粪肠球菌及铜绿假单胞菌等致病菌血清沉淀抗体与患者脊髓损伤发病时间、UTIs的发生次数及留置尿管时间显著相关[18]。而在假单胞菌属细菌感染过程中,33%的患者出现免疫球蛋白IgG和/或IgA明显增高(≥4倍)[17]。大于1%脊髓损伤UTIs患者会出现菌血症或败血症,其中90%以上患者出现发热,17%出现血压降低,约15%患者死亡[19-20]。泌尿道医疗操作是发病危险因素之一,而四肢瘫及完全性脊髓损伤相比普通脊髓损伤患者更容易因此被诱发菌血症[21]。
4.1导尿管管理
对于在院脊髓损伤患者而言,留置导尿管是导致UTIs的重要原因之一,可能引起严重并发症,延长住院时间,大量增加医疗费用[22-23]。通过为期1年的随访发现,导尿管相关UTIs及无症状菌尿的发生率约为每100人中每天发生2.7例和5例[24]。研究显示,导尿管相关UTIs的发生率与UTIs诊断标准及导尿策略相关[25-26]。
4.1.1导尿管种类的选择
用于制作导尿管的材料通常有乳胶、塑料、硅胶及四氟乙烯塑料,然而这些材料都不具有完全生物相容性,均可引起并发症。相对而言,乳胶导管表面比硅胶导管更容易被细菌黏附,更有可能引起UTIs[27]。此外,乳胶导管更容易诱发机体内毒性效应及促炎反应,长期应用可能导致息肉性膀胱炎[28]。硅胶导管虽然引起UTIs风险较低,但因为质地较硬,舒适感较差,从而降低患者依从性[29-30]。
为了提高导尿管的舒适性并降低感染风险,近年来临床上出现了三种主要涂层技术,包括亲水涂层、银离子亲水涂层和抗生素涂层导尿管。
亲水涂层是一种可以提高导尿舒适性,减少微生物黏附,预防导尿管结壳的新兴技术[31-32]。一项多中心随机研究回顾了224例3个月内发生创伤性脊髓损伤的间歇导尿患者,发现相比无涂层聚氯乙烯导尿管,应用亲水涂层导尿管可以明显延迟首次UTIs的发生时间,并可以使日患UTIs风险降低1/3[30]。
银离子亲水涂层技术主要应用银离子本身抗微生物属性以控制UTIs风险[33],已被证实可以降低短期院内UTIs风险[34]。但已有的数据并不能除外长期应用银离子涂层导尿管引起银中毒可能,因此尚需临床大样本、长随访研究完善数据[35]。
同样,抗生素涂层导尿管可以短期内减少无症状菌尿的发生,但也缺少长时间随访数据,并且还没有证据支持抗生素涂层导尿管可以降低有症状UTIs发生风险[25]。
4.1.2导尿方案的选择
脊髓损伤后的尿潴留使得医生需要为患者选择适当的导尿方案,只有掌握恰当的导尿时机,尽早拔除尿管并且注意导尿过程中无菌操作,才能有效降低导尿管相关UTIs风险[4]。根据美国炎症疾病协会意见,导尿仅适用于大量尿潴留(药物治疗无效)、尿失禁的临终患者,需要严格监测尿量的危重患者,以及长时间手术过程[25]。尽早拔除留置的尿管可以减少菌尿的发生。对于需要长期携带尿管的脊髓损伤患者,通常建议每2~4周常规更换尿管以降低UTIs风险,一旦怀疑存在UTIs应立刻更换尿管[36]。相比留置导尿,间歇导尿可以降低菌尿风险(70%vs.98%)[37-38],但间隔时间过长反而会增加菌尿风险[39]。目前间歇导尿的指导意见为每日最少间隔6h及睡前导尿1次,使膀胱残余尿量小于400ml,以避免返流及感染[37]。
手清洁及消毒技术是一种简单、有效的方式以减少护理相关感染,因此也被建议应用于更换尿管的过程中[40]。但目前并没有证据说明院内医疗人员导尿相比家庭自主导尿所引起的UTIs风险小。
4.2可疑泌尿系感染
对于携带导尿管无症状菌尿患者,在没有确切诊断UTIs之前,为避免细菌耐药不应该应用系统抗生素治疗[41]。近年有研究提出,每周一次预防性交替口服抗生素可以明显减少UTIs年发生率,并且不会增加抗生素副作用或导致多重细菌耐药的风险[42-43]。
4.3确诊泌尿系感染
4.3.1抗生素治疗
当患者发生导尿相关UTIs时,应用抗生素之前,临床医生需要做出的决定主要是:①应用抗生素是否需要覆盖尿培养结果中的所有病原体;②抗生素预计需要应用多少长时间?美国感染疾病协会建议针对导尿管相关UTIs患者,应该尽早拔除尿管,对于长期依赖导尿患者,可以应用疗程7~14d的抗生素[25]。大多数情况下医生在选择抗生素时都应该以尿培养结果为依据,倾向特异性高的窄谱抗生素,并且尽可能缩短抗生素用药时间。但也有报道指出,对于社区获得的严重UTIs,病原体相对复杂,可能需要应用广谱抗生素进行覆盖治疗[44]。Everaert等建议,对于脊髓损伤患者,慢性期诊断UTIs但不伴发热症状时只需应用抗生素治疗5d;急性期诊断UTIs但不伴发热者可以应用抗生素治疗7d;诊断UTIs并伴随发热患者需要应用抗生素治疗14d。此外,他们还提出,根据当地致病菌分布情况,呋喃妥因和甲氧苄氨嘧啶适用于慢性脊髓损伤UTIs患者,而喹诺酮类和头孢呋辛更适用于急性脊髓损伤UTIs患者[45]。
4.3.2细菌干扰技术
近年来,通过为膀胱接种非致病菌来抑制致病菌生长的技术引起了广泛的关注。一项随机研究显示,为神经源性膀胱患者接种非致病大肠杆菌可以显著降低有症状UTIs一年发生率。但这种技术的疗效十分依赖于接种细菌的定植能力,在该研究中,仅有37%患者成功接种益生菌[46]。细菌干扰技术的疗效机制并不完全清楚,可能与非治病大肠杆菌广泛抑制宿主核糖核酸聚合酶Ⅱ基因的表达相关,从而减少体内炎症反应和病原体免疫应答的发生[47]。该技术尚未广泛应用主要原因在于:①接种设备及操作过程复杂,耗时数日;②益生菌接种后保持、维护困难,可能需要反复接种;③因为尿液渗漏流出,患者配合依从有限。
泌尿系感染目前仍是脊髓损伤患者需要面对的一个重大健康隐患,泌尿系结构功能的改变、频繁的导尿、感觉功能障碍以及免疫功能下降,都使得该类患者难于早期诊断并获得及时治疗。如何才能更早地诊断,更好地预防、控制脊髓损伤患者UTIs依然是临床亟待解决的问题。除了不断改良导尿技术、应用优质导尿管、掌握更换导尿管时机、尽量避免长期留置尿管、合理应用抗生素等措施之外,副作用小、依从性好、操作简单并适合长期应用的治疗方法更符合临床需求。
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Research Progress of Urinary Tract Infections in Patients with Spinal Cord Injury(review)
ZHU Jia-qi,MA Yue-wen,CHEN Rui
Department of Rehabilitation Medicine,First Hospital of China Medical University,Shenyang,Liaoning 110001,China
Correspondence to MA Yue-wen.E-mail:yuewen_m@sina.com
Abstract:Urinary tract infections remain the most frequent infection in patients with either traumatic or nontraumatic spinal cord injury.The urinary tract infections are closely related to impaired bladder storage,voiding dysfunction,and use of indwelling catheters after spinal cord injury.Repeated urinary tract infections can cause upper urinary tract deterioration,and related chronic or repeated exposure to the antibiotics used to treat urinary tract infections increases the risk of multidrug-resistant bacteria colonization.Therefore,it is important to determine appropriate urinary tract infections treatment in spinal cord injury patients who are admitted to rehabilitation hospitals.The limitations of the usual measures in prevention of urinary tract infections in this population have led the way to explore more innovative modalities and approaches.We reviewed the researches of urinary tract infections on spinal cord injury.It is presented to provide reference for clinical diagnosis and treatment.
Key words:spinal cord injury;urinary tract infections;diagnosis and treatment;review
[中图分类号]R651.2
[文献标识码]A
[文章编号]1006-9771(2016)06-0676-04
DOI:10.3969/j.issn.1006-9771.2016.06.011
作者单位:中国医科大学附属第一医院康复科,辽宁沈阳市110001。
作者简介:朱佳琪(1985-),女,汉族,湖南益阳市人,硕士,医师、助教,主要研究方向:神经康复、心脏康复。通讯作者:马跃文(1964-),女,满族,辽宁沈阳市人,博士,教授,主要研究方向:神经康复、心脏康复。E-mail:yuewen_m@sina.com。
收稿日期:(2016-03-28修回日期:2016-04-19)