脑小血管病多样化临床表现的影像学基础

2013-10-25 09:36:56米涛免孙永馨
首都医科大学学报 2013年6期
关键词:腔隙帕金森步态

米涛免 孙永馨

(首都医科大学宣武医院神经内科,北京100053)

脑小血管病(small vessel disease,SVD)的解剖学定义是指所有累及颅内小血管的疾病,包括小动脉、微动脉、毛细血管和小静脉疾病,但目前临床广泛使用的狭义定义认为SVD是指脑小动脉及微动脉血管病[1]。英国一项以一般人群为基础的前瞻性研究[2-3]显示,65岁以上老年人中约2/3存在SVD。SVD中很大一部分表现为亚临床病变,其引起的卒中常在急性期的临床症状及近期预后较其他类型表现轻,所以容易被患者及医务工作者忽视。但是越来越多的国内外研究表明,SVD 是导致头晕[4]、血管性认知障碍和痴呆[5]、老年抑郁症[6]、步态异常[7]、帕金森样症状[8-9]、排尿障碍[10]等的重要因素,可以严重影响患者的生活质量,因此并不能完全将其视为良性过程。影像学检查手段的发展为诊断SVD提供了重要依据,主要包括腔隙性脑梗死(lacunar infarct,LI)、脑白质病变(white matter lesions,WMLs)、扩大的血管周围间隙(enlarged perivascular spaces,EPVS)和微出血(cerebral microbleeds,CMBs)。本文就SVD的影像学及临床表现进行系统地综述,以加深临床医师对SVD及其危害的认识,并指导临床诊治及寻找未来研究方向。

1 SVD的影像学表现

图1 脑小血管病影像学表现Fig.1 Imaging of small vessel disease

SVD通常具备以下四种影像学表现(图1),这些表现可同时存在亦可单独存在,它们虽然不是SVD唯一特有表现,但高度提示SVD。

1.1 腔隙性脑梗死

腔隙性脑梗死包括急性腔隙性脑梗死(acute lacunar infarct)和腔隙(lacunes)。

1)急性腔隙性脑梗死:通常是指最大直径不超过20 mm的圆形、椭圆形或管状的梗死灶[13],这一定义是通过对脑梗死晚期的病理研究得到的,然而Wardlaw等[14]及Bang等[15]通过影像学研究发现急性梗死灶可演变为腔隙或类WMLs信号甚至消失(图2),这就对急性腔梗的最大直径提出了质疑,并强调了病变时期的重要性。急性腔隙性脑梗死最多见于基底节、脑桥及丘脑,计算机断层成像(computed tomography,CT)上表现为边界清晰的低密度影,在磁共振成像(magnetic resonance imaging,MRI)T2 加权像(T2-weighted imaging,T2WI)、弥散加权成像(diffusion weighted imaging,DWI)、液体衰减反转恢复序列(fluid-attenuated inversion recovery,FLAIR)上呈高信号,T1 加权像(T1-weighted imaging,T1WI)上呈低信号。

图2 急性梗死灶可变为腔隙或类WMLs信号甚至消失[14]Fig.2 Acute stage infarcts could turn to lacune or white matter lesions or disappear[14]

2)腔隙:指直径为3~15 mm充满脑脊液的腔[14],通常被认为是陈旧性脑梗死。CT上表现为边界清晰的低密度影,MRI T1WI呈低信号、T2WI呈高信号,可呈圆形、椭圆形或裂隙状,多见于基底节区、内囊、丘脑及脑桥[1]。文献[16-17]显示急性腔隙性脑梗死演变为腔隙的比例为28%~94%,大动脉粥样硬化性疾病和栓塞引起的急性非腔隙性梗死灶也可演变为腔隙[18],因此 Wuerfel等[19]提出只有存在多发腔隙或当其与中度以上WMLs共存时,才能认为腔隙是由SVD引起。

1.2 脑白质病变

也称脑白质疏松(leukoaraiosis,LA),是指脑白质广泛脱髓鞘病变,常累及脑室旁、半卵圆中心及放射冠。在CT上表现为低密度影,在MRI上表现为边界模糊的双侧基本对称斑片状或斑点状甚至发生融合的病变,T1WI为等或低信号,T2WI、FLAIR序列为高信号。自Hachinski等[20]首次提出“脑白质疏松”这一定义23年来,对WMLs的临床和病理研究越来越多,目前公认 WMLs是由 SVD 造成[1]。Schmidt等[21]通过病理学研究发现老年人颅内融合的WMLs能够反应SVD的严重性,且WMLs的发展变化可以成为临床上反应SVD预后的终点事件。

1.3 微出血

需要特殊的检查如梯度回波序列才能发现,CMBs在梯度回波序列T2* 加权核磁共振(T2-weighted gradient-recalled echo,GRE-T2*)上表现为直径为2~5 mm均匀一致的卵圆形低信号或信号缺失,病灶周边无水肿[22]。CMBs主要发生在白质、深部灰质及幕下。Greenberg等[23]通过对老年人口调查发现CMBs发生率高达11%-23%,CMBs在SVD患者中更常见,且Kato等[24]研究显示CMBs与WMLs严重性及LI数量正相关。

1.4 扩大的血管周围间隙

又称 V-R 间隙(virchow-robin spaces,VRS),指小穿支动脉周围充满脑脊液的间隙,是蛛网膜下腔的延续[25],通常小于1 mm×2 mm,多见于半卵圆中心、基底节及海马区[26]。MRI T2WI上表现为沿穿支动脉走行分布的高信号影,与镜像平面平行时呈线性,与镜像平面垂直时则呈点状[12]。MRI上EPVS需与LI鉴别,其在质子密度加权像(proton density weighted images,PdWI)上表现为等脑脊液信号[27-28]。Doubal等[12]认为EPVS是SVD颅内病变的另一种表现形式。Rouhl等[29]通过对165例 SVD患者 EPVS与缺血性脑损伤的相关性研究发现基底节区EPVS与LI有相关性,而侧脑室旁EPVS与WMLs有相关性。

2 SVD的多样化临床表现

SVD除可引起腔隙性卒中外,还可导致血管性认知障碍和痴呆、步态异常、头晕、老年抑郁症、帕金森样症状、排尿障碍等多种非特异性症状,目前大多数临床医师对这些非特异性症状认识不足。

2.1 腔隙性卒中(lacunar stroke)

SVD是引起腔隙性卒中及颅内出血的重要原因之一,Sudlow等[30]在一项国际协作研究中提出腔隙性卒中占所有卒中的20%,占缺血性卒中的25%。主要表现为各种腔隙综合征,如纯运动性偏瘫、单纯感觉障碍、构音障碍-手笨拙综合征、共济失调性轻偏瘫等。尽管腔隙性卒中急性期很少导致死亡,但有一定的致残率,且可以增加腔隙性卒中复发率[31]及认知障碍、痴呆的发病率。目前认为SVD引起腔隙性卒中的病理机制主要有两种:一是由粥样硬化性斑块阻塞近端穿支动脉引起其供血范围内面积较大的梗死,症状常有进行性加重,且预后较差[32];二是由远端小穿支动脉广泛脂质透明样变性和纤维素样坏死引起面积较小的梗死[33-34],往往与其他 SVD 表现(WMLs、腔隙)共存。

但是急性腔隙性卒中并不等于SVD,小部分(小于10%)大动脉狭窄也可以引起腔隙性卒中,其机制往往是载体动脉压闭穿支动脉[35-37]。此外,栓塞也可导致急性腔隙性卒中,一系列单个队列研究及meta分析结果显示只有10%~15%的腔隙性卒中由栓塞引起[38-40],Macdonald 等[41]通过动物实验发现注入颈内动脉的栓子只有6%进入了穿支动脉。Del Bene等[32]认为栓塞引起的急性腔梗大多位于基底节区,其他部位的急性腔梗则多由小动脉本身病变引起。

2.2 血管性认知障碍和痴呆(vascular cognitive impairment and dementia)

以起病隐袭,进行性加重为特点[5],主要表现为执行功能和信息处理速度降低[42-44]。Roman 等[5]2002年在《柳叶刀》杂志上发表的文章提出SVD是最常见的引起血管性痴呆的原因。一项456例尸检病理研究[3]显示,75岁以上老年人中SVD患者痴呆的发病率为非SVD患者的3倍多。

LI、WMLs、CMBs、EPVS 均可导致认知功能障碍。Koga等[45]对350名平均年龄72.4岁的老年人研究发现LI的部位与认知障碍类型有关,LI的数量与认知障碍严重程度成正比,然而Nitkunan等[46]研究显示若患者同时存在LI和WMLs,其LI数量却与认知障碍严重程度无关。2005~2006年间的16项研究证明WMLs可导致认知障碍[47],且可以作为认知障碍早期的预警信号[48-50]。然而,Frisoni等[51]认为 WMLs与总体认知功能减退无关,只有当合并了其他特殊认知障碍如精神运动性迟滞、注意力不集中、执行缺陷综合征时,才能将WMLs作为痴呆的标志。Werring等[52]研究显示CMBs也可引起认知功能障碍,并能增加痴呆的发病率[53]。Maclullich 等[54]对社区抽样的97名65~70岁健康男性进行MRI研究,发现EPVS数量增加与认知功能,尤其是非文字推理和视空间能力下降相关。O'Sullivan等[55]认为SVD引起认知障碍的机制可能是因为其破坏了与记忆、信息处理速度及执行功能相关的额叶-皮层下环路。

2.3 步态异常(gait disturbances)

正常步态有赖于中枢神经系统、周围神经系统以及骨骼肌肉系统的协调工作,三者间联系纤维的破坏即可引起步态异常。临床上,常用的正常步态参数有步宽(两侧足中心线之间的距离,正常大约5~10 cm)、跨步长(一侧足跟到同侧足跟迈步后的距离,正常大约100~160 cm)、步频(每分数迈出的步数,正常:95~125步/min)和步行速度(单位时间内行走的距离,为跨步长与步频的乘积),而异常步态即表现为步态参数的改变。

Verghese等[7]对488名70~99岁社区老年人步态异常流行病学调查发现约35%SVD患者表现为步态异常。de Laat等[56]对431名 SVD患者进行 MRI与步态参数相关性研究,发现WMLs、LI、CMBs均与步态参数独立相关。三者均可引起跨步长缩短,其中LI还可引起步频减低,从而导致步行速度减慢,且WMLs体积和LI数量与步行速度减慢程度呈正比。此外,严重SVD患者还可表现为步宽增大。SVD患者步态异常还与皮层厚度有关,de Laat等[57]通过对415名50~85岁SVD患者步态异常与皮层厚度相关性研究发现,额叶腹外侧、眶回、顶下小叶、扣带区、视觉联想区的皮层厚度与跨步长成正比,运动前区、运动辅助区、扣带回的皮层厚度与步频成正比,额叶腹外侧、眶回、扣带回前部尤其是顶叶前部及颞上回与步宽成反比。SVD引起步态异常的机制可能是因为其破坏了联系控制步态的多个大脑区域间的白质纤维束,进而破坏皮层与皮层、皮层与脊髓间的联系[58]。

2.4 帕金森样症状

包括轻度帕金森样体征(mild parkinsonian signs,MPS)和血管性帕金森病(vascular parkinsonism,VP)。

1)MPS:包括行走迟缓,震颤,肌强直及姿势步态异常。在一定程度上,可认为MPS是帕金森氏病的前驱期。SVD,尤其是 WMLs和 LI与 MPS密切相关[8-9,59]。研究[8-9]表明,WMLs 体积与 MPS 严重性呈正比,然而临床中发现部分重度WMLs患者并不出现MPS,de Laat等[60]认为可能与 WMLs尤其是侧脑室旁额叶WMLs内白质微结构完整性的破坏程度有关。Reitz等[9]对268名65~83岁社区人群进行SVD与MPS相关性研究,发现皮层下WMLs能够增加静止性震颤的发生率,而皮层下及侧脑室旁WMLs可增加肌强直严重程度;LI能够增加静止性震颤和运动迟缓的发生率,且LI数量增加可加重静止性震颤的严重性。鉴于额叶、顶叶小面积WMLs及丘脑LI即可使MPS发生率明显增加,由此推断,SVD通过破坏基底节-丘脑皮层回路而导致MPS的发生[61]。

2)VP:指由脑血管病引起的帕金森病,这一概念自提出以来一直备受争议,直到CT、MRI应用到临床证实血管性损伤尤其是脑深部LI和WMLs确实能表现为帕金森症状[62-63]。其临床表现同 MPS。van Zagten等[59]认为 SVD为血管性帕金森病的重要病因,他们通过对103例CT上表现为脑深部LI、流域性脑梗死(大脑中动脉主干闭塞或两个以上M2段闭塞所致脑梗死)或WMLs的患者随访3年发现,36%患者至少存在一种帕金森样症状,10%患者有帕金森综合征,并且LI者行走迟缓、肌强直及姿势步态异常发生率高于流域性脑梗死,WMLs患者帕金森症状发生率较无WMLs患者高出两倍之多。Reider-Groswasser等[64]对45例基底节LI患者研究发现38%有帕金森症状。血管性帕金森病的发生机制可能与 LI或WMLs破坏基底节-丘脑皮层回路有关[59]。

2.5 头晕(dizziness)

头晕为老年人的常见症状,以往认为若患者仅有头晕而无其他神经缺损症状,则很少将其与SVD联系在一起。然而有研究[4]显示,WMLs与头晕密切相关,越来越多以头晕为主诉的患者其行头颅MRI检查发现WMLs[65],且常存在其他血管病危险因素,如肥胖、高密度脂蛋白水平降低等。因此,当临床上头晕患者找不到其他可解释的病因时,需考虑到SVD的可能。

2.6 老年抑郁症(late-life depression,LLD)

LLD突出表现为精神运动性阻滞、注意力不集中及兴趣缺失[35,66-67]。SVD 患者尤其是 WMLs 患者,可表现为抑郁[68-70]。Nebes 等[71]认为 LLD 仅与 WMLs体积有关,与LI无关,然而,Grool等[6]发现脑深部白质走行区的LI、WMLs均能导致LLD。SVD导致LLD的机制尚不明确,目前认为可能有以下3种机制:①Alexopoulos等[72]提出“血管性抑郁假说”,认为 SVD通过破坏前额区的情感调节结构或其调节通路导致LLD。②Fu等[73]研究发现SVD患者左侧额下回萎缩(与老年人情绪调节相关)可能参与了LLD的发生。③ van Uden等[74]认为SVD患者左侧杏仁核体积缩小也可与LLD的发生有关,可能系杏仁核参与人类情绪调节过程。

2.7 排尿障碍(urinary dysfunction)

文献报道SVD患者排尿障碍主要包括排尿肌反射亢进[10](主要表现为夜间尿频)和尿失禁[75]。Sakakibara等[10]通过对63例除外脑干梗死及大范围半球梗死的患者WMLs与排尿障碍相关性研究分析,发现有WMLs患者、无WMLs患者中排尿肌反射亢进发生率分别为82%和9%,说明WMLs可能为膀胱去神经支配的重要原因之一,并提出WMLs患者可能在其他神经系统症状出现前先出现排尿障碍。Tarvonen-Schroder等[75]发现 WMLs尿失禁发生率也较无WMLs者高。

综上所述,SVD在早期可无任何临床症状,但随着病情的发展可出现头晕、老年抑郁症、帕金森样症状、步态异常、排尿障碍、血管性认知障碍或痴呆等,从其症状的多样性和远期致死率、功能损害来看,是一组具有重要临床意义的颅内病变。SVD临床表现往往不典型,容易被漏诊或误诊。如果能够早期识别症状,早期实现病因学诊断则有助于对因治疗、延缓疾病进展。

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