龙 博, 陈 忠, 李玉春
(1.海南师范大学 生命科学学院,海南 海口 571158;2.山东大学 生态学与生物多样性研究所,山东 济南 250100)
不同因素对动物家域面积的影响
龙 博1,2, 陈 忠1, 李玉春2*
(1.海南师范大学 生命科学学院,海南 海口 571158;2.山东大学 生态学与生物多样性研究所,山东 济南 250100)
对动物家域大小的研究是动物生态学与保护生物学的基本研究领域之一,对评价动物的生境质量、生境选择、栖息地负载量具有重要意义.迄今对动物家域的研究主要集中在家域面积的测算方法,但研究不同因素对动物家域面积的影响是更重要的生态学问题.文章综述了不同因素对动物家域面积影响的研究成果,包括性别、季节、种群密度、捕食风险、婚配制度和人类影响,以促进该领域的进一步发展.
家域面积;因素;核心法;最小多边形法
家域(home range)是动物进行取食、繁殖、巡游等日常活动的场所[1],是关系到野生动物生境质量评价、栖息地负载量以及保护区规划和管理等重要领域的基础参数[2-4].动物家域面积在不同季节、不同时段受到不同因素的影响而不断变化,这种变化即反映了环境对动物的影响,同时也是动物适应环境、有选择地利用生境的一种表现.目前对动物家域的研究集中在家域面积的测算方面,对影响家域面积的因子及其变化规律的研究成为一个正在兴起的领域.本文总结了不同因素对动物家域面积影响的研究成果,为今后有关领域的研究提供参考.
计算动物家域面积使用过的方法有很多种,例如调和平均数法[5]、椭圆法[6]、Fouries法[7]及其栅格法[8-9]等,但由于这些方法的假定使用条件在野生动物难以得到满足或具有明显的缺点而已经很少被使用.目前被广泛使用的方法是最为简单直观的最小凸多边形法(MCP:Minimum Convex Polygon)和基于家区内部利用密度分布的核心法(kernel method).
最小凸多边形法(MCP)是估算动物家域面积最常用和最简单的方法.该方法连接动物最外围定位点得到的多边形作为动物的家域,其标准为多边形的外角大于180°.最小多边形法的缺点是:1)不能描述家域内动物的利用密度分布,计算出的家域内往往包括动物并未利用的大片区域;2)偏远定位点对动物家域面积的计算影响显著,容易造成家域面积估计过大[10-11].核心法(Kernel Method)是Wor⁃ton提出的最新方法,其基本原理是利用核心法(kernel)对动物的定位点进行曲面拟合,按照一定的空间或密度百分率截取底面积作为动物的家域面积.Li et al利用核心法计算了日本日光国立公园梅花鹿(Cervus nippon)的家域面积和内部利用,并首次将这种方法译为“核心法”[12].核心法受偏远定位点的影响小,能精确估算动物家域面积及其对家域内的利用密度分布,但它在定位点的空间自相关性、平滑系数的设定以及所用栅格大小等参数的设置上存在差异,对活动范围较小的动物适用性不够好[13-15].
2.1 性别对家域面积的影响
不同性别的个体由于身体大小不同而对能量的需求不同,家域面积取决于动物的能量需求[16],这种差异导致不同性别个体的家域面积不同[17-22].雌雄个体由于在繁殖和育幼中的作用不一样,由此导致能量需求和生境选择的差异,也是导致家域面积不同的主要原因.Coleman&Downs通过无线电遥测方法获得了黑尾青毛鼠(Thallomys nigricauda)的活动位点数据,应用MCP法测算了雌雄个体的家域面积,发现雄性个体的家域面积明显大于雌性的[23].对梅花鹿、野猫(Felis catus)、赤树(鼠平)(Arborimus longicaudus)、美洲暮蝠(Nycticeius hu⁃meralis)不同性别个体家域面积的研究均显示雄性个体家域面积大于雌性个体[12,24-26].
2.2 季节对家域面积的影响
家域最重要的功能之一是为动物提供足够的食物资源[27].食物的种类和数量、获取食物的难易程度、食物的分布是影响动物家域面积的主要因素,而气候的季节性变化和植物物候导致动物家域内食物的数量和分布发生季节性变化,从而引起动物的家域面积具有季节性变化[28-32].例如,平原囊鼠(Geomys bursarius)雌性个体由于环境中食物数量和种类的变化以及繁殖季节能量需求的增加导致其春冬季节的家域面积明显大于春夏季节[33].对棕熊(Ursus arctos)家域的无线电遥测结果也显示雌性个体夏季家域面积大于春季和冬季[34].Brandt&Cresswell对火雀(Lagonosticta sanguinodor⁃salis)跟踪遥测发现,由于旱季需要移动更远的距离寻找水源而使旱季家域面积大于雨季[35].繁殖季节的营巢行为也是导致鸟类家域面积季节变化的一个重要原因,如Reynolds et al.对莱桑鸭(Anas Laysanensis)家域面积遥测表明,繁殖季节营巢个体的家域面积和活动时间明显小于未营巢个体[36].
2.3 种群密度对家域面积的影响
影响动物家域面积的因素中除了外界环境条件(如食物种类和数量、生存空间大小、捕食风险、栖息地质量等)外,还有动物本身的内部因素如种群数量和婚配制度[37].结群或家族生活的动物由于寻找的食物资源必须满足整个群或家族的需求,在食物匮乏的季节或食物量匮乏的生境中其活动范围要比单个个体的大,即需要更大的家域面积.对小兴安岭和南卡罗莱纳州野猪(Sus scrofa)家域的研究已发现,家族群体的家域面积大于单独个体的家域面积[38-39].对毛蜘蛛猴(Brachyteles arachnoids)家域的研究亦发现,随着种群密度的增加其家族的家域面积显著扩大[40].
2.4 捕食风险对家域面积的影响
动物在自然环境中无时无刻不面临着被捕食的风险[41],动物可以通过减少活动时间、改变活动区域、寻求隐蔽场所等等方式尽量减少被捕食的风险[42-44],这些应对捕食风险的策略导致了家域面积的变化.通过对24头野猪的遥测发现高风险下野猪除夜间觅食外其余时间均藏匿在猎人难以到达的灌木丛中,缩小活动范围以减小被猎捕的概率,因此家域面积明显小于低捕猎捕风险期[45].由于成年松树林提供了茂盛的枝叶和足够的树洞供北美飞鼠(Glaucomy sabrinus)躲避天敌的捕食,因此成年松树林的面积往往可影响到北美飞鼠的家域面积[46-47].对西点林鸮(Strix occidentalis)、狮子(Pan⁃thera leo persica)家域面积研究发现,动物为了应对捕食风险会选择高郁闭度的区域,导致家域面积的改变[48-49].
2.5 婚配制度对家域面积的影响
动物在繁殖季节进入临近异性的家域寻找配偶,导致雄性与雌性个体家域重叠范围大于非繁殖季节.对长爪沙鼠(Meriones unguiculatus)繁殖季节家域面积的研究发现,不仅雄性长爪沙鼠会进入附近雌性长爪沙鼠的家域,雌性长爪沙鼠也会主动进入雄性的家域与更多的雄性长爪沙鼠交配[50].运用无线电遥测技术对两种不同婚配制度的纳氏草鹀(Ammodramus nelsoni)和尖尾沙鹀(A.caudacutus)繁殖季节家域面积进行了比较研究,发现雄性纳氏草鹀在交配完毕后会陪伴雌性并阻止其他雄性与其交配,而雄性尖尾沙鹀并未表现出守卫雌性的行为,这种婚配制度上的差异导致雄性纳氏草鹀必须比雄性纳氏草鹀搜寻更大的范围寻找未交配的雌性,因此其家域面积比雄性尖尾沙鹀要大[51-52].
2.6 人类活动对家域面积的影响
人类开发利用自然资源以及对野生动物栖息地的破坏和挤占造成野生动物种群数量下降和家域面积的改变.加拿大阿尔伯特省北部石油开发导致驯鹿(Rangifer tarandus caribou)栖息地破坏,致使驯鹿可用的食物资源量减少,驯鹿被迫扩大家域面积以寻找足够的食物[53-54].也有研究报道了日益增加的土地开发导致了落基山区域马鹿(Cervus elaphus)家域面积的减小[55].对中国内蒙古东部草原地区狼(Canis lupus)的研究发现,由于过度放牧和肆意捕杀野生动物,该地区狼的食物主要来源由野生动物变为牧民饲养的羊,因此狼对牧民居住区的利用频率要大于草原的其他地区[56].动物家域中的核心区是动物利用最为频繁的区域,核心区的重叠表明两个物种将面临激烈的种间竞争,在正常情况下核心区不会重叠,但由于畜牧业、石油开采和狩猎使得美国德克萨斯州黑尾鹿(Odocoileus hemionus eremicus)和白尾鹿(Odocoileus virginia⁃nus)两个物种的家域面积被压缩,甚至导致两个物种家域核心区高度重叠[57].
无线电遥测技术的引入极大地推动了动物家域研究的发展.随着技术手段和研究方法的不断进步,无线电遥测技术向着多方式多途径综合使用的方向发展.在研究方法上无线电遥测与卫星追踪(GPS-collar)相结合,使得对大范围长距离活动的动物家域研究更加方便和精确,如对新西兰鸠(Hemiphaga novaeseelandiae)家域的研究和红狼(Canis lupus rufus)家域的研究[58-59].在对野外遥测数据的处理上改进计算家域面积和家域利用的数学模型(如三维模型),使家域面积和利用率的计算更加精确[60-61],同时结合GIS和某些工具软件如Google Earth等,使数据能够被更加合理有效地利用[62-63].
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Effects of Different Factors on Animal Home Range Size
LONG Bo1,2,CHEN Zhong1,LI Yuchun2*
(1.College of Life Sciences,Hainan Normal University,Haikou571158,China;2.Institute of Ecology and Biodiversity,Shandong University,Jinan250100,China)
Study on animal home range size is one of fundamental areas for animal ecology,and is necessary for related areas such as evaluating animal habitat quality,habitat selection,and carrying capacity evaluation.Up to now,studies of animal home range have been concentrated on evaluation home range size,however,effect of different factors on home range size is even more important for animal ecological studies.We summarized the studies of effect of different factors on home range size including sex,seasonality,population density,predation pressure,mating system and anthropogenic influence.
Home range size;factor;kernel method;MCP
Q 958.12
A
1674-4942(2011)04-0439-05
2011-09-14
国家自然科学基金项目(30970367);海南省自然科学基金项目(311049)
*通讯作者
黄 澜