张 岩
(河南科技大学 外国语学院,河南 洛阳 471000)
系统功能语言学认为语言具有概念、人际和语篇三大元功能。Halliday提出语法隐喻理论,他认为语法隐喻主要见之于概念功能和人际功能,因此将语法隐喻分为 概念隐喻和人际隐喻。Martin提出了语篇隐喻的概念,他认为语法隐喻通过展开一个语篇的主位结构和信息结构,成为组篇的工具。研究表明科技语篇中存在大量的语法隐喻,但对语法隐喻的研究多集中在语法隐喻的概念功能上,较少涉及其语篇功能。本文从概念隐喻和语篇隐喻的角度来论述科技语篇语法隐喻的语篇功能。
语篇功能是语言成分组织成为语篇的功能,主要通过三种方式体现:主位系统、信息系统和衔接。英语小句由主位和述位构成。在主位系统中,主位先于述位出现,主位是话语的出发点,围绕主位的述位是信息的剩余部分。信息系统是已知信息与新信息相互作用构成信息单位的结构,每个信息单位由已经出现过的或由语境可确定的成分即已知信息和言语活动中未出现或由语境难以确定的成分即新信息构成。“已知信息+新信息”是常见的信息单位结构。信息系统是一种语义结构形式,通过运用照应、省略、替代、连接等语法衔接和词汇衔接等手段,把语篇中的语言成分联成语义关系,因此衔接是一个语义概念。
在英语主位结构中主位总在最前面,一般来说,已知信息先于新信息出现,信息中心位于信息单位的最后,但有时说话人为强调某个成分可把新信息作为讲话的起点,因此新信息也可出现在已知信息前面。主位述位的顺序和已知信息和新信息的顺序之间并不存在绝对的一致性,它们完全是出于不同的角度。主位系统是从信息的角度基于说话人或作者的,而信息系统是从注意焦点的角度基于说话人或作者赋予给听话人或读者的角色的,两个系统共同作用才产生衔接的连贯的语篇。
(一)概念语法隐喻
Bahktin(1981)认为所有的语篇都有互文性(intertextuality),即所有的语篇都在不同程度上包容其他实际的或可能的语篇,任何说话者都是某种程度上的回应者,他永远不可能是第一个说话的人,作者在构筑语篇时预设他自己和其他人以前说过的言语的存在,因而在作者与前人之间形成一种内在的对话。同时语篇也预设理想的读者的存在,作者希望真正的读者通过理想的读者理解语篇。
互文性涉及引用作者或他人曾经写过关于某个领域的论文和著作。这里我们关注的主要限于文章本身即篇际互文性。篇际互文性指的是语篇的后面部分指涉前面已经论述过的某些内容,主要通过重复和同义完成这一过程。这里所说的重复和同义是指联系前后某些内容的词汇衔接。语法隐喻构成一种通过名词化实现重复和同义关系的特殊的词汇衔接。
科技语篇主要依靠连贯的论点以及精确的逻辑的推论和演绎来展开语篇。语法隐喻使得观察和实验凝集为重新识解的经验,通过语法表达出来,从而作为进一步发展论点、进行推论的出发点。主位是已知论点的集合,打包论点让其成为一个小句的主位的唯一途径就是把它变为名词词组。名词通常指的是“事物”。通过名词化,过程、性质可被事物化、被概述为“事物”,从而作为下一小句的出发点、另一过程的参加者,而且名词化由于略去了执行者而增加了客观性,这与科学的意识形态相一致。通常我们以小句的形式被告知某物,由于进一步推论的需要,过程或性质被隐喻为名词。Thompson认为名词化的一个重要功能就在于其概述力,因此名词化具有推论的功能。例如:
In the case-control study, SIDS was significantly associated with sleeping in the prone position, as compared with other positions… The strength of this association was increased among infants who slept on natural-fiber mattresses……
在该例中,述位部分中的新信息“was significantly associated……”被打包为名词词组“the strength of this association”,作为下一小句的主位。第二个小句中的主位变成了推论中出发点的已知信息。通过语法隐喻而不是通过一个字一个字的重复实现了语篇的连贯和衔接。
Guillén Galve给出一个某个语篇中包括三种表达的例子来阐释通过语法隐喻实现的篇际互文性。
1、The results of these experiments suggest that when nerve fascicles are impaled by commercially available injection needles (of similar diameter), lesions occur less frequently, are less severe and are repaired more rapidlyif they are induced by an LB needle compared with an SB needle.
2、The results of all three experiments suggested that,should a nerve fascicle become accidentally impaledduring regional anaesthesia, the lesions induced by short bevelled needles are more severe, more frequent and take longerto repair than those induced by long bevelled needles.
3、In conclusion, this study provides evidence from several different experiments which show that, should accidental nerve fascicle penetration occur, then the frequency, severity and time course of intrafascicular injury would be greater when SB, as opposed to LB, needles were used.
在第一种表达中从以物质过程实现的从属句得知“when nerve fascicles are impaled by commercially available injection needles (of similar diameter), lesions occur less frequently, are less severe and are repaired more rapidly if they are induced by an LB needle compared with an SB needle”,这是一致式的表达。第二种表达是类似于第一种的识解。第三种表达是隐喻式的表达,再现了前面已经出现的语篇,实现了互文性。名词词组“accidental nerve fascicle penetration”和名词词组“the frequency, severity and time course of intrafascicular injury”代替第一种和第二种表达中出现的动词“impale”,形容词“severe”,副词“accidentally”、“frequently” 和 “rapidly” 来实现语篇的连贯和衔接。与第一种和第二种表达相比,条件句“should accidental nerve fascicle penetration occur, then the frequency, severity and time course of intrafascicular injury would be greater”中的主句在结构上简单些。
(二)语篇语法隐喻
Martin提出的语篇语法隐喻的概念无疑与语篇功能相关。
首先,为了支持命题而陈列一些论据,一些名词作为元信息用来组织语篇,在现实中它们并没有确切的相应的实体。例如:
Human blood serves the body in three important ways.First, blood carries substances needed to maintain and repair the body tissues. In this way, blood serves as a provider.Second, blood also serves as a disposer, since it carries wastes and gases away from the tissues of the body. In addition, blood acts as a defender. The white corpuscles in the blood-stream constantly guard against and try to destroy bacteria and other agents that threaten the body’s welfare.
名词“ways”不指代现实中的任何实体。从语篇来看,它指的是用来支持小句中所表达的命题“human blood serves the body”的并列的一些论据。
第二,指称词如“this”、“that”、“these”、“those”和“it”并不指代任何实际的物或人,而是表示对事实、动作和语篇的确实性表达。例如:
It will be long time before any landing on Mars can be attempted. This will long be possible when scientists have learned a lot more about the atmosphere that surrounds the planet.
代词“this”预设了一种宏观现象——“landing on Mars”这一事实。
第三,语篇中的内在连接词作为衔接链也是一种语法隐喻。例如:
To begin with one must consider the naming or designation of real numbers as these are the assumed connection between theory and experiment. That is, in quantum mechanics at least, all predictions of theory are real numbers.
非限定性动词词组“to beging with”并不是指开始做某事这一实际的动作。
另外,隐喻性主位和隐喻性信息也能实现语篇功能。如果下一小句的主位用来概述前一小句的述位、前一整句、前几个句子、甚至一个段落,那么该主位就是隐喻性的主位,见下面一例。
When a solution any substance is separated from a solute-free solvent by a membrane that is freely permeable to solvent molecules, but not to molecules of the solute, the solvent tends to be drawn through the membrane into the solution, thus diluting it. Movement of the solvent across the membrane can be prevented by applying a certain hydrostatic pressure to the solution.
“Movement of the solvent across the membrane”是对前一小句信息的概括。它是该小句的出发点,因此它是主位,更确切地说是连接语篇不同部分的隐喻性主位。
隐喻性信息是语义凝集。例如:
Further, ex-situ SEM examination revealed the presence of dimpled failure in nanocrystalline Ni.
该小句中新信息的一致式是投射小句β“the presence of dimpled failure in nanocrystalline Ni”,它具有自己的新信息和已知信息。
α Further, ex-situ SEM examination revealed that
β dimpled failure in nanocrystalline Ni is present.
通过分析科技语篇中的概念语法隐喻和语篇语法隐喻,可以发现语法隐喻的语篇功能在于通过主位系统和信息系统以及隐喻地实现语篇的方式来建构具有逻辑性的衔接的连贯的语篇。
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[2]Galve, I. Guillén. The Textual Interplay of Grammatical
Metaphor on the Nominalizations Occurring in Written
Medical Enlish[J].Journal of Pragmatics, 30, 1998: 363-385.[3]HallidayM.A.K.AnIntroductiontoFunctional Grammar[M].London: Edward Arnold Limited, 1994.
[4]Martin,J.R.EnglishText—Systemandstructure[M].Amsterdam/Philadelphia: John Benjamins Publishing Company,1992.
[5]Thompson, G. Introducing Functional Grammar[M].London:Edward Arnold Publishers Limited, 1996.
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