Apelin与内皮功能障碍相关心血管疾病的研究进展及其应用展望

2024-11-08 00:00王妤舒俊华干意涂丹娜
心血管病学进展 2024年10期

【摘要】内皮细胞既是各种外界刺激和体液介质的靶细胞,又具有非常活跃的代谢功能,能分泌多种活性物质调节血管舒张,参与炎症反应以及血液凝固等过程。作为内源性多肽激素,Apelin可通过影响NO的利用、调节氧化应激、影响血小板功能、促进内皮细胞增殖迁移及血管生成等多种途径影响内皮细胞功能,维护循环系统的健康,在心血管疾病的诊疗中具备一定的前景。鉴于Apelin对内皮功能障碍的多维影响,现以Apelin为核心对其在心血管疾病的作用、机制及应用前景进行综述。

【关键词】内皮细胞;Apelin;心血管疾病

【DOI】10.16806/j.cnki.issn.1004-3934.2024.10.012

Research Progress and Application Prospects of Apelin in Cardiovascular Diseases Associated with Endothelial Dysfunction

WANG Yu,SHU Junhua,GAN Yi,TU Danna

(Department of Pediatrics,Maternal and Child Health Hospital of Hubei Province,Tongji Medical College,Huazhong University of Science and Technology,Wuhan 430070,Hubei,China)

【Abstract】Endothelial cells not only serve as target cells for various external stimuli and body fluids,but also have highly active metabolic functions.They can secrete plenty of active substances to regulate vasodilation,participate in inflammation reactions,and blood coagulation processes.Apelin,an endogenous peptide hormone,impacts endothelial function via nitric oxide utilization,oxidative stress regulation,platelet function,endothelial cell proliferation andmigration,angiogenesis and so on.Apelin maintains the health of the circulatory system and holds promise in the diagnosis and treatment of cardiovascular diseases.Therefore,this article will review the association between Apelin and endothelial dysfunction,and its role,mechanism,and prospects in cardiovascular diseases.In view of the multidimensional influence of Apelin on endothelial dysfunction,this article reviews its role,mechanism and application prospect in cardiovascular diseases with Apelin as the core.

【Keywords】Endothelial cell;Apelin;Cardiovascular disease

内皮功能障碍是指内皮细胞(endothelial cell,EC)在调节血管功能、保持血液流动性和调控炎症反应等方面出现异常,它与多种心血管疾病如高血压、动脉粥样硬化(atherosclerosis,AS)、冠心病、糖尿病并发症、血栓性疾病等密切相关。Apelin是一种内源性多肽激素,与G蛋白耦联受体血管紧张素Ⅱ1型受体相关蛋白(angiotensin Ⅱreceptor-like 1,APJ)组成Apelin/APJ系统,参与调节内皮功能,并在心血管系统中发挥重要作用。

1 Apelin的分布及生理功能

Apelin是Xq25~26.1染色体上的基因编码,包含Apelin-36、Apelin-13、[Pyr1]-Glu-Apelin-13、Apelin-17和Apelin-12等多个活性片段[1]。Apelin不同亚型在结构与功能上大致相似,但在分布、与受体结合的亲和力以及生物学活性上却有所不同[2]。

Apelin/APJ在心血管系统尤其在EC中高度表达,可调节血压、促进血管生成、增加心肌收缩力等,在内皮功能障碍相关疾病中发挥重要作用[1]。

2 Apelin/APJ系统与内皮功能障碍的关联

病理情况下,EC中NO的生成能力和敏感性降低,活性氧(reactive oxygen species,ROS)生成增加,血管通透性改变,血管内稳态失衡,血管壁易发生炎症、形成血栓,其顺应性降低,同时血管生成也会出现异常,即发生内皮功能障碍[3]。

2.1 Apelin对内皮型一氧化氮合酶-NO轴的影响

NO有维持血管稳态、减少白细胞黏附及趋化、抑制血小板黏附和聚集、促进血管生成、调节血压等功能[3],因此它的减少和生物利用度降低将导致其心脏保护性作用下降,而Apelin通过促进NO生成和释放以改善内皮功能障碍。在AS初期,内皮型一氧化氮合酶(endothelial nitric oxide synthase,eNOS)生物活性下降,诱导NO生成减少,且L-精氨酸耗竭致使eNOS介导的ROS生成增加,NO生物利用度降低[4]。而Apelin通过上调eNOS mRNA与蛋白质表达,磷酸化蛋白激酶B和AMP活化的蛋白质激酶(AMP-activated protein kinase,AMPK)诱导eNOS激活,共同激活L-精氨酸/一氧化氮合酶/NO通路,促进NO产生[5]。

2.2 Apelin对氧化应激和炎症的影响

氧化应激和炎症的持续存在是引起EC功能障碍的主要触发因素。而Apelin/APJ系统具有抗氧化应激、抗细胞凋亡和抗炎作用。Apelin/APJ系统通过促分裂原活化的蛋白质激酶(mitogen-activated protein kinase,MAPK)/胞外信号调节激酶(extracellular signal-regulated kinase,ERK)和AMPK通路促进抗氧化酶表达,并通过AMPK通路抑制促氧化酶表达[6]。Xu等[7]还证实外源性Apelin能抑制相关炎症因子的表达,防止内质网过度激活,减少炎症细胞和线粒体肿胀的数量。

在载脂蛋白E(apolipoprotein E,ApoE)基因缺陷AS小鼠模型中,Apelin可增加NO生物利用度,减少ROS的产生,减轻氧化应激损伤从而抑制AS进展,稳定AS斑块[8]。ROS可导致NO失活,进而对血管舒张产生不利影响,导致内皮功能障碍和高血压。Apelin降低血压的主要机制是当EC完整时促进eNOS磷酸化,增加NO释放,促进内皮依赖性血管舒张[9]。而当内皮功能受损时,Apelin与平滑肌细胞上APJ结合,使血管收缩,进而引起血压升高[10]。在缺血再灌注损伤中,线粒体ROS的释放增多,而Apelin可通过激活eNOS,促进NO释放,降低过氧化氢浓度,抑制线粒体氧化损伤和脂质过氧化,发挥心肌保护作用[11]。

2.3 Apelin对血小板功能的影响

Apelin/APJ在血小板中有表达,可抑制血小板活化、影响血小板聚集,从而调控血栓形成[12]。Apelin不同亚型对血小板功能和血栓形成调控有所差异。Apelin-13能抑制腺苷二磷酸诱导的血小板聚集[2],也能抑制凝血酶和胶原蛋白诱导的血小板活化和聚集[13]。此外,Apelin还能通过NO途径刺激环磷酸鸟苷的高表达,从而有效抑制血小板活化,同时通过减少血栓素A2合成抑制血小板聚集,二者共同抑制血栓形成[13]。相反,Apelin-12、Apelin-17、Apelin-36可通过激活PANX1/P2X7信号通路而浓度依赖性诱导血小板聚集[2],其中Apelin-17还可抑制体外激活蛋白-1诱导的血小板活化[12]。

在个体水平上,例如心肌梗死患者,血小板活化增强,Apelin表达水平升高,但是APJ在血小板上表达却显著下降[12,14]。同时,Adam等[13]发现通过静脉注射外源性Apelin可延长Apelin基因缺陷小鼠的出血时间,并预防血栓形成。这些研究结果表明,Apelin的应用可能有助于减轻血小板活化、抑制血栓形成。

2.4 Apelin/APJ系统促进EC增殖迁移和血管生成

异常的EC增殖和迁移、血管生成可能导致如血管瘤、AS等疾病发生。Apelin可促进EC和内皮祖细胞增殖、迁移以及血管生成[15]。缺氧状态时,Apelin和APJ的表达上调,并通过激活下游PI3K/Akt信号通路、ERK/MAPK信号通路促进内皮祖细胞增殖,参与内皮修复和新生血管的形成[16]。促进EC增殖的机制可能涉及促进血管内皮生长因子表达,激活p70 S6激酶通路等[16-17];而促进EC迁移可能与激活Ras同源基因家族成员A/Rho相关蛋白激酶通路,影响血流剪切应力诱导的极化等有关[5,18]。

血管生成是缺血性心脏病心脏功能改善的主要原因[19],Apelin可通过促进血管内皮生长因子受体2和酪氨酸激酶受体2表达[19]、激活AMPK和Akt信号传导等方式促进毛细血管样结构形成[20],进而促进心肌梗死后心肌缺血区域血管生成。相反Apelin基因缺失、应用Apelin/APJ抑制剂的小鼠其血管生成受到抑制[21-22]。生成血管的同时Apelin还可调节心肌梗死后淋巴内皮病理重塑,促进心脏淋巴管的成熟和稳定[23],降低心脏微血管EC的通透性[19],以限制心肌梗死后持续性水肿及炎症。因此Apelin在血管重塑及相关心血管疾病方面具有一定的治疗潜力。

3 以Apelin为靶点的心血管疾病治疗的探索

Apelin通过活化的APJ直接作用于心脏,可降低心律失常、慢性炎症、间质纤维化和心脏肥大的风险,改善心脏功能并减少心肌纤维化和异常重塑的发生。外周血中Apelin水平可作为诊断、监测疾病治疗效果、评估预后的生物标志物。多项研究[24-27]支持Apelin在这些代偿失衡患者中表达水平存在不同程度的降低。然而,在急性心肌梗死患者的血浆中,Apelin表达水平却上升[14]。另外,研究证明冠状动脉疾病患者血清中Apelin降低[28],手术后显著上升;心力衰竭患者血清中Apelin水平降低,在心脏再同步化治疗后上升[26]。这种双相变化提示,可能疾病早期及有效治疗后,Apelin的表达增加可抑制疾病的进展;而晚期,Apelin及其受体的表达下降,导致心脏功能障碍。多项研究表明,静脉输注Apelin对肺动脉高压、心力衰竭、心肌梗死等心血管疾病模型具有显著的保护作用(见表1)。在高血压大鼠模型中,外周静脉输注Apelin可在1 min内降低血压,效果持续为3~4 min[29]。长期皮下注射Apelin-13能抑制血管紧张素Ⅱ引起的血压升高和心脏重构[30]。毋庸置疑,外源性Apelin被认为是一种有前景的心血管疾病治疗药物。

然而,Apelin在生物体内半衰期短,为几分钟,且需通过静脉给药,限制了其作为治疗药物的使用。现已开发出了一些拥有更强生物活性和抗降解性的合成物,主要分为Apelin类似物和非肽类APJ小分子激动剂。大多数研究致力于提高Apelin化合物血浆稳定性和APJ结合亲和力,包括对裂解位点的修饰、环化,对非天然氨基酸的添加或置换,以及非肽APJ激动剂等[1]。相比于对侧链进行修饰,对Apelin的主链进行修饰可更好地增强其稳定性[38]。部分化合物如MM07、CMF-019对G蛋白信号传导偏倚,减少了长期使用所致的受体下调,有效预防了剂量递增的需求以及耐药性的产生[39-40]。目前仅有少数动物体内研究评估了合成物给药后的实际效果,但这些研究仍然为人类心血管疾病治疗提出了前瞻性策略。

多种以Apelin为靶点的新型化合物表现出与内源性Apelin相似的作用和更好的效力。Fernandez等[38]发现通过对Apelin类似物进行修饰,特别是经L-环己基丙氨酸或L-高精氨酸修饰后,不仅可延长半衰期,显著增强其与APJ的结合力,还能提供更迅速和稳定的正性肌力,更显著和持久的降血压作用。在大鼠麻醉状态下,短期使用这些药物,表现出正性肌力作用,并且基本不影响心率,这可能是由于通过激活肌球蛋白轻链激酶来增加肌丝钙敏感性和积极的舒张性作用,从而实现增强心脏功能而不增加耗氧量[39-44](见表2)。然而在清醒的犬类实验中,药物的急性血流动力学变化远不如麻醉犬明显,这可能是因为全身麻醉抑制了交感神经活性[42]。因此,在合理应用下,Apelin相关化合物可作为有效的正性肌力和抗高血压药,且不增加心肌的耗氧量,可能有利于改善患者的心脏功能和预后,减少死亡的发生。

部分研究[39-40]通过细胞实验及肺动脉高压模型有效证明了MM07、CMF-019不仅可改善心脏功能,还能促进EC的增殖并抑制其凋亡,减轻肺小血管肌化,长期使用该化合物甚至可能逆转肺动脉高压。尽管目前对药物的长期应用研究相对较少,但现有的观点仍倾向于支持长期使用Apelin类似物对心脏功能有改善作用,部分实验结果还提示其能抑制病理性心脏重构[39,42-43]。

4 Apelin应用的不足与展望

尽管Apelin在内皮功能障碍相关心血管疾病中显示出积极作用,它的使用仍伴随潜在风险。有研究[45]指出Apelin在下丘脑中表达,长期使用可抑制卵泡刺激素、黄体生成素等促性腺激素分泌,进而可能导致不孕症及体重增加。Apelin能有效抑制病理因素所导致的心脏肥大,然而在正常小鼠及心肌细胞实验中,Apelin却促进了心脏及心肌细胞肥大[46],这与APJ整合Apelin和内外刺激,从而偏向调节G蛋白信号传导和β-抑制蛋白招募水平有关[47]。无论是否存在病理刺激干预,G蛋白偏向的Apelin化合物都能抑制心脏肥大的发生[46]。故需探索出一种半衰期更长、亲和力更高、安全性及稳定性更佳、生物效力更显著、G蛋白偏倚的APJ激动剂和类似物,以便更安全有效地应用于未来临床治疗。仅有少数Apelin相关化合物进入临床试验,首次人类临床试验[48]中提示MM07可作为有效的外周静脉扩张剂。随后进行的AMG 986试验提示,在健康者及心力衰竭患者中短期使用该药物有一定的心脏功能变化,但不具备临床意义[49],且二者均表现出良好的安全性和耐受性。仍需更多研究以探索药物剂型、剂量和临床效用。

5 总结

近年来,Apelin被发现参与多种疾病,特别是内皮功能障碍相关心血管疾病的发生发展。然而,由于Apelin的短半衰期以及用药方式的限制,其药物开发在一定程度上受限,且Apelin类似物和APJ激动剂的动物及人体研究仍存在较大的空白。此外,在不同病理条件下,部分研究结果也存在一定差异。尽管仍有许多问题亟待解决,但不可否认的是,Apelin作为内皮功能障碍相关心血管疾病的潜在治疗靶点,具备良好的临床研究价值及应用前景。

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基金项目:湖北省科技创新项目(2021CFB558)

通信作者:涂丹娜,E-mail:tdn_tutu@163.com