炎症性肠病(inflammatory bowel disease,IBD)是一种慢性自身免疫介导的炎症性疾病,包括溃疡性结肠炎(ulcerative colitis,UC)和克罗恩病(Crohn’s disease,CD)。确切病因尚不清楚,认为是由环境、微生物和遗传因素相互作用引发异常免疫反应导致肠道炎症
。IBD已成为21世纪全球发病率不断上升的全球性疾病
。
与很多免疫相关性疾病一样,IBD并不局限于胃肠道,是一种可以累及任何器官的全身性疾病
。国外文献报道超过30%的IBD患者伴有肠外表现
,虽然亚洲与欧洲的IBD患者有着相似的肠外表现危险因素,亚洲IBD患者肠外表现患病率却低于西方国家患者
。肠外表现是IBD患者发病率和致残率的重要来源,也是一个确定的危险因素
。研究发现,肠外表现可在IBD诊断数年前出现,临床医师应了解其各种表现,以期帮助早期发现、诊断、治疗IBD患者,改善患者预后
。
因肝脏和胃肠道之间存在密切的解剖和生理关系,肝脏受累常发生在胃肠道疾病中
。常见的IBD相关性肝病分为:(1)与代谢相关:非酒精性脂肪性肝病(non-alcoholic fatty liver disease, NAFLD);(2)与致病机制相关:原发性硬化性胆管炎(primary sclerosing cholangitis, PSC)、自身免疫性肝炎(autoimmune hepatitis, AIH)、原发性胆汁性肝硬化(autoimmune hepatitis, PBC)、重叠综合征;(3)与治疗相关:药物性肝炎、病毒性肝炎;(4)与生理学变化相关:门静脉血栓、肝脓肿。IgG4相关胆管炎(IgG4-associated cholangitis,IAC)、肉芽肿性肝炎和淀粉样变性较少见
,接下来就常见的、严重的IBD相关性肝病的流行病学、发病机制、临床特点、治疗方面的最新研究进展作一概述。
NAFLD是最常见的IBD相关性肝病,关于其患病率各研究报道不一(8.2%~44%)
,明显高于一般人群
。年龄、BMI、糖尿病、IBD病程和既往肠切除史是目前公认的IBD患者发生NAFLD的危险因素
。一项关于IBD患者肌少症和NAFLD的临床相关性的研究发现,肌少症比值比为2.99,是IBD患者并发NAFLD的一个重要、独立的危险因素
。部分IBD患者接受硫唑嘌呤治疗后出现肝脂肪变性,故认为高水平的甲基巯基嘌呤可能是肝脂肪变性另一个潜在危险因素
。IBD合并NAFLD具体的发病机制尚不明确,影像学检查发现肝脏脂肪变性在IBD患者中较为常见,提示肠道炎症和肝-肠轴紊乱可能在NAFLD的病理生理学中起着重要作用
。接受抗肿瘤坏死因子(tumor necrosis factor, TNF)治疗的IBD患者中NAFLD的患病率很高。克罗恩疾病活动指数(the Crohn’s disease activity index,CDAI)与肝脂肪变性独立相关,提示IBD治疗药物与自身肠道炎症参与了NAFLD的发生发展
。利用NAFLD评分对有上述危险因素的IBD患者进行筛查,有助于疾病的早期诊断和治疗
。近期一项研究发现,在采用地中海饮食(mediterranean diet,MD)的基础上进行短期饮食干预后,CD和UC患者营养不良相关参数和肝脏脂肪变性显著降低,对IBD并发NAFLD治疗提供了参考
。
PSC是一种以慢性、进行性肝内和/或肝外胆管炎症、扩张、狭窄和闭塞为病理表现的肝病,诊断基于内窥镜逆行胰胆管造影或磁共振胰胆管造影
。约80%的PSC患者同时患有IBD
,PSC是IBD患者最常见、最特异的肝胆表现
。伴有PSC的结肠炎具有特定的临床和病理学特征,被认为是IBD的一种独特表现型,常被称为“PSC-IBD”,通常表现为轻度广泛结肠炎,以右侧为主
。IBD与PSC之间的病理生理相互作用尚不清楚,与单纯的IBD相比,伴有PSC的IBD患者病变范围更广,发生结直肠癌的风险增加
,PSC-IBD患者如果在40岁以下就被诊断患有IBD,患结直肠癌的风险将增加4倍,对于这类患者,建议每年筛查结肠镜
。一项关于有PSC的UC和无PSC的UC横断面研究发现,前者谷草转氨酶(aspartate aminotransferase, AST)、谷丙转氨酶(alanine aminotransferase, ALT)、γ-谷氨酰转肽酶(gamma glutamyl transpeptidase,γ-GGT)、血清碱性磷酸酶(alkaline phosphatase, ALP)和血清IgG4较后者显著升高,推荐使用GGT和IgG4检测方法评估UC合并PSC的风险
。IBD伴发PSC的发病机制不清,研究发现合并PSC的UC患者CD4
、CD25
T细胞升高,提示CD4
、CD25
调节性T细胞可能在UC相关PSC的发病机制中发挥关键作用,也为这一疾病的治疗提供了新的思路
。但目前肝移植仍然是治疗PSC唯一有效的方法
。
现实主义为了解国际社会提供了真实的一面,但其更侧重于描述以国家间相互实力的对比为核心的层面,在这种无政府状态下,国家之间并非完全处于一种无政府状态下的混乱局势,各个国际组织、国际法会对主权国家间的行为进行相应的约束和遏制。但现实主义并未对国际关系中各国之间的合作与发展作出必要的解释和分析,建立在对现实主义批判基础之上的自由主义将从理论层面对这些问题进行相应的弥补和梳理。
免疫调节剂和生物制剂的使用使得IBD的治疗发生了革命性的变化。在这种免疫抑制的情况下,机会性感染是IBD患者的一个重要安全问题
。IBD患者全身严重病毒感染的发生率是普通人群的3倍
。一项回顾性研究提示:中国IBD患者的乙型肝炎病毒(hepatitis B virus,HBV)感染率高于欧洲、美国和中国普通人群,但HCV感染率与本研究中普通人群相似
。免疫抑制和生物疗法相关的乙型肝炎再活化正在成为当前或先前接触过HBV感染的患者发病和死亡的重要原因
。已报道的病毒性肝炎再活化病例具有广泛的临床表现,从无临床表现的病毒血症到危及生命的暴发性肝炎不等
。因此,在开始使用这些药物之前,识别有重新激活风险的患者,并开始以预防HBV重新激活为目标的治疗,是管理这些患者的最佳策略
。接种疫苗对IBD患者至关重要,并且对IBD患者应该常规进行乙型和丙型肝炎病毒感染的筛查
。
用于治疗IBD的多种药物如磺胺嘧啶、硫嘌呤、甲氨蝶呤、TNF、抗整合素、5-氨基水杨酸、小分子JAK抑制剂等均可能引起肝损伤
。不同的药物所致的DILI有着不同的特点,如:在TNF拮抗剂中,英夫利昔单抗和依那西普最常与肝损伤相关,包括无症状血清转氨酶升高、临床上明显的AIH的诱导和乙型肝炎的再激活
;硫鸟嘌呤治疗的IBD患者中,可以观察到肝脏的血管异常,特别是结节性再生增生(nodular regenerative hyperplasia,NRH)
;硫唑嘌呤常常表现为肝细胞损伤和胆汁淤积二者混合
;甲氨蝶呤主要表现为转氨酶升高
。早期诊断DILI是重要的,因为它影响到患者未来的临床管理。当肝脏检查异常时,临床医师应进行全面的诊断检查,以确定肝脏异常是否与IBD有关
。研究发现,硫唑嘌呤和巯基嘌呤治疗IBD患者1周6-甲基巯基嘌呤核糖核苷酸(6-methylmercaptopurine ribonucleotide,6-MMPR)浓度对肝毒性发展有着较好的预测价值
;利用RUCAM评分可以帮助临床医师辨别肝损伤是否由服用的药物所致
。近年来关于DILI治疗的研究层出不穷,部分取得了阶段性的成果,低剂量硫嘌呤-别嘌呤醇联合治疗对IBD患者是一种安全、有益的优化策略
;单激肽可减轻2%右旋糖酐硫酸钠引起的肝脏病理损伤、肝脏参数、巨噬细胞浸润和细胞因子水平
;半乳糖蛋白酶-1对肝损伤小鼠具有增殖、抗凋亡、抗炎和抗氧化作用,有望作为一种抗肝毒性的保护剂
。目前肝毒性仍然是治疗IBD患者的一个重要临床问题。临床医师需要对不同药物类别下肝脏相关不良事件的特点,根据患者情况制定合理、个体化治疗方案以及结合危险因素制定适当的预防和管理策略。
IBD发生血管并发症的风险增加,最重要的是动脉和静脉血栓栓塞,被认为是IBD的特殊肠外表现。PVT在IBD患者中并不常见,但其发病率仍高于普通人群
。PVT主要发生在结肠次全切除术后,最常见的初始症状为腹痛,可在出院数周后发生,术前C反应蛋白(C-reactive protein,CRP)与其相关,最佳预测CRP阈值为45 mg/L,CRP>45 mg/L的患者PVT发生率更高,需要进一步的研究来确定高危患者术后合适的门诊血栓预防方案
。早期和积极地使用抗凝治疗可对IBD相关性PVT起到良好的治疗效果,特别是选择直接口服抗凝药物的研究对象未出现肠缺血、门脉高压症、大出血和死亡等不良反应,与较高的完全缓解率(96%)相关
。为IBD患者并发PVT的抗凝治疗方案提供了参考。
相比PSC,IBD合并AIH、PBC及重叠综合征较为少见。PSC是最常见的肝胆表现,其他AIH可能在后者的演变过程中发生发展,称为重叠综合征
。临床诊疗发现伴有AIH的IBD患者比不伴有AIH的IBD患者治疗失败的频率更高
。同时,最近一研究报道可溶性抑制性受体PD1(soluble programmed death 1,sPD1)水平与AIH和IBD的活动性相关,这一受体与PSC无关,而PSC合并AIH或IBD显示较高的sPD1水平。说明可溶性sPD1水平可作为评估AIH患者活动性的临床生物标志物,可前瞻性监测、评估PSC患者发生IBD或AIH的可能性
。PBC是另一种自身免疫性胆汁淤积性肝病,二者并存的情况很少见,但在IBD患者肝功能异常筛查时也应考虑PBC
。
两试验均采用大区对比设计,每处理1 320 m2(22 m×60 m)不设重复。试验田施种肥磷酸二铵525.0 kg/hm2+尿素 112.5 kg/hm2,追施尿素 750.0 kg/hm2。生育期间浇4水。
“中国特色社会主义”是何时提出的?目前,绝大多数学者一致认为这一命题是在党的第十六次代表大会被正式提出和使用的,而邓小平在党的第十二次代表大会开幕词中的讲话则被普遍认为是中国特色社会主义内涵的首次铺垫。此后,党的历次代表大会均围绕“中国特色社会主义”的主题开展,并对其内涵进行不断的丰富与发展。
肝脓肿虽然是IBD的罕见并发症,但却是潜在的严重威胁患者生命的严重疾病。由于症状往往不典型,可能会误以为IBD病情加重,导致诊断和治疗延迟,对患者的生命造成严重的威胁
。综合目前研究结果,每年住院两次或两次以上、剖腹手术、糖尿病患者、行经皮胆囊和胆道穿刺、内镜下胆道引流管置入、免疫抑制治疗、瘘管形成和腹腔内脓肿是IBD发生肝脓肿的危险因素,UC患者比CD患者更容易发病,在IBD人群中,年龄和性别不影响肝脓肿发生
。最常见的致病微生物为中间链球菌。治疗方案包括抗生素抗感染、针吸、导管引流、胆道引流、手术引流等,应根据患者病情、病灶范围、位置等综合判断和选择个体化治疗方案
。
IBD伴有肝脏并发症并不少见,其对IBD患者的病情发展和预后有着重要的影响。对于肝功能异常的IBD患者,临床应常规筛查是否与原发病相关以及积极查找肝损伤的原因。肝病作为IBD的常见并发症,多先于IBD发生,对IBD的早期发现、诊断、治疗有着重要的意义,通过学习各型IBD相关性肝病的特点及研究进展,可为科学的治疗和管理患者奠定基础。
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