何建武,安立会,齐红莉
淡水环境微塑料研究进展
何建武1,2,安立会2,齐红莉1,通信作者
(1. 天津农学院 水产学院 天津市水产生态及养殖重点实验室,天津 300392;2. 中国环境科学研究院,北京 100012)
环境微塑料(Microplastics,MPs)是指环境中持久存在的、粒径小于5 mm的塑料颗粒、薄膜、纤维等。环境微塑料已在水体、沉积物和生物体内广泛检出,被联合国环境署列为亟待解决的十大环境科学问题之一。本文从淡水环境中的微塑料来源、环境分布与迁移、潜在的生态效应及仪器分析方法4个方面做综合阐述,并对未来淡水环境微塑料研究提出了展望,以期为全面开展环境微塑料调查监测和风险评估提供理论基础。
微塑料;监测;来源;影响;展望
自1972年起,CARPENTER[1]在美国Florida沿海首次发现了微塑料之后,微塑料在世界范围内的水、沉积物及生物体中均有检出,在人类生产活动密集的港口、河流入海口等地区污染较为严重[2-3]。作为近几年的新型污染物,微塑料受到国内外学者的高度关注,而目前微塑料污染的调查工作依然集中在海洋环境[4-6],如亚洲、澳大利亚、巴拿马、美国等多个地区的沿海地区[7],甚至南极洲[8]附近海域。随着海洋环境微塑料污染的爆发,淡水环境中微塑料污染的研究逐渐进入学者们的视野。
现有研究表明,关于淡水环境中微塑料的报道近几年一直在增加;在巴西、印度以及中国太湖[9-11]等地区的淡水流域中均开展了微塑料污染的调查工作,但较海洋环境仍处于起步阶段。除了自然环境中广泛检出的微塑料,最新研究发现饮用水[12]甚至各类食物[13]中也检出了微塑料,可见微塑料污染正在破坏自然环境,并对人类的健康产生潜在威胁,因此亟需对淡水环境中微塑料污染水平与潜在生态风险开展研究。
本文对淡水环境中微塑料的特征、生态效应、分析方法进行了全面阐述,并对今后淡水环境微塑料研究提出展望,以期为今后淡水环境中微塑料的全面研究和风险监控提供理论参考。
微塑料按来源分为初生微塑料和次生微塑料[14]。其中,初生微塑料是指直接生产的粒径<5 mm的塑料颗粒,主要作为个人护理品添加剂和工业用抛光料等使用,这些微塑料会随冲洗过程经家庭排水系统和污水排放进入到水环境中[15-16]。尽管现存的污水处理系统对微塑料的最高去除率可达90%以上,但仍然有可观数量的微塑料进入水环境[17]。次生微塑料通常由较大的塑料垃圾经过物理、化学、生物等作用分解形成,水环境中大块塑料的破碎主要和紫外辐射及水面波浪有关,但小型水域(如河流、湖泊)中的微塑料较大型水域(如海洋)暴露于紫外线中的可能性更高;同时陆地上的大块塑料,尤其是在土壤表面的,由于长期暴露在紫外线之下,也非常容易发生破碎后形成微塑料颗粒[18-20]。
污水处理厂被认为是水生环境中微塑料的重要来源之一[21]。有研究在德国的下萨克森州4个三级和8个二级污水处理厂中分析了微塑料,发现其由14种不同的聚合物组成,其中大部分被确定为聚乙烯,而且主要形态为纤维,经过样品对比得出其来源多为衣物纤维[22]。MASON等[23]在美国的17个不同污水厂中发现,平均每个污水处理设施每天要释放400多万个微塑料,纤维和碎片为最常见的形态,且人口密度越大的地区,其污水处理厂日排放微塑料的数量越大。在上海某污水处理厂,白濛雨等人[24]发现污水厂总进水中微塑料丰度为117 n/L(n为微塑料个数),调配水中为90 n/L,总出水中为52 n/L,研究粒径为0.355~ 1.000 mm,出水中数量较多为合成革、人造丝、聚酯纤维和聚乙烯,且多为纤维和颗粒,颜色多为透明、黄棕色、蓝色、红色、黄色、绿色、黑色、灰色和棕色;形态、颜色和类型均表明污水厂中的微塑料主要来源于衣物清洗过程。现有关研究[25]显示,污水处理厂中的微塑料多为人们日常生活中的一些化妆品成分以及洗涤衣物时脱落的衣物纤维。污水处理厂中微塑料的研究属于起步阶段,仍然需要大量的研究来说明污水处理厂中微塑料的主要类型及来源。
微塑料能够在陆地生态系统、淡水环境和海洋环境之间进行迁移,而淡水环境被视为陆地生态系统和海洋环境微塑料迁移的桥梁[26]。研究表明,70%~80%的海洋微塑料都是通过淡水径流引入的[5],因此淡水环境中的微塑料较陆地和海洋环境更应受到重视。一部分陆地环境中的微塑料会在重力作用和生物活动的影响下沉积到地下[27],另一部分留在地表。地表上较轻的微塑料在风力作用下进入淡水水体甚至海洋[28],较重的微塑料随着地表径流冲刷或水土流失进入淡水系统,例如农业灌溉的排水沟、雨水冲刷等[29]。同时,沉积到地下的微塑料也可能通过地下径流进入淡水环境[30]。
目前相较于海洋环境中微塑料的调查工作,淡水环境中的微塑料研究相对较少。但近几年来的研究表明,淡水环境中的微塑料污染同样普遍存在[31],并通常在人口密集的地方微塑料污染较为严重,在一些偏远地区湖泊中也发现了微塑料漂浮于水体表面。在Hovsgol中,研究发现了高水平的微塑料,平均丰度为20 264 ind/km2,并且微塑料形态丰富,如纤维、碎片、薄膜、颗粒、微珠等[32],说明这些湖泊虽然远离人口稠密的环境,但微塑料的污染会跟随环境中季风、径流等作用,扩散到各种水体当中。武汉地区湖泊的微塑料污染也达到了(1 660.0 ± 639.1)~(8 925.0 ±1 591.0)n/m3,且主要为纤维、碎片、颗粒[33],这类分布在靠近市区水体中微塑料的丰度远高于郊区。台州椒江口、温州瓯江口和福州闽江口水体中同样发现微塑料的丰度范围在100~4 100 ind/m3,主要为聚乙烯和聚丙烯的纤维、颗粒状和彩色塑料颗粒物,并且污染程度与当地的经济产业结构呈显著相关[34]。另外值得关注的是,在太湖表层水体中同样检出了微塑料,环境丰度在0.01×106~6.80×106ind/km2之间,形态包括纤维、薄膜、碎片以及小球等,颜色有蓝、黑、白和红等,材质主要是聚乙烯、对苯二酸酯和聚酯,据推测其来源大多为人们日常生活所使用的塑料产品[11]。CASTANEDA等[35]在城市河流中发现,人口密度与微塑料含量出现相同的趋势,说明微塑料的污染情况和人类活动有较强的关联性;KLEIN等[36]在德国莱茵河和Main河的调查工作中也发现,微塑料含量和人类活动有很大的相关关系。
河流沉积物被认为是微塑料的临时储存库,是淡水和海洋环境微塑料的重要来源[37]。在雅加达湾、普卢伊特和安科拉的河床沉积物中,发现大多数微塑料为聚丙烯、聚对苯二甲酸乙二醇酯、聚酯纤维、尼龙等类型,丰度范围为18 405~ 38 790粒/g,形态有碎片、颗粒和纤维,颜色包括蓝色、黑色、白色等[38],这与当地产业结构和人类活动密不可分。在文伯纳德湖沉积物中也发现了大量薄膜和泡沫状的微塑料,大多数为低密度聚乙烯、聚苯乙烯和聚丙烯,丰度为96~496个/m2,其来源大多数为旅游活动带来的塑料垃圾[39]。莱茵河的河床沉积物中,发现微塑料丰度为(0.26 ± 0.01)×103~(11.07 ± 0.60)×103MP/kg,粒径范围在11~500 μm,微塑料粒径<75 μm的占96%以上,大多数为丙烯酸酯、聚氨酯、聚苯乙烯、聚乙烯、聚氯乙烯和聚丙烯,分析来源大部分为防污漆涂料,用于保护和减少船体的摩擦[40]。洛东江(The Nakdong River)河口沉积物中雨季后的微塑料丰度要高于雨季前,微塑料的粒径范围主要集中在20 µm以下,塑料类型主要为聚乙烯、聚丙烯、尼龙等[41]。长江口潮滩沉积物中微塑料检测结果显示的平均丰度为(3.42 ± 1.31)items/g,有纤维和碎片两种存在形态[42]。
根据研究和种类而言,淡水生物中用于研究微塑性污染的动物大多为鱼和双壳类动物;有研究对22种物种进行调查,发现90%以上的个体被微塑料污染[43]。在葡萄牙杜罗河口的鰕虎鱼()体内,平均11.66条/100 m3密度下,发现了不同类型的微塑料,即纤维和软、硬塑料,颜色为彩色、透明,共有2 152个颗粒,平均丰度为17.06 MPs/100 m3,以硬塑料和纤维为主,共占总体微塑料的83%[44]。德国西南部淡水鱼类微塑料调查中,共采集了1 167条鱼,发现18.8%的个体体内含有微塑料,丰度在(1.2±0.5)个/条,粒径平均范围(899±1 050)μm,主要类型为碎片和纤维,分别占54%、39%,颜色有蓝色、黄色、黑色、绿色和红色等[45]。在太湖区域调查的鱼类样品中,微塑料的主要类型为赛璐酚(49.1%)、聚对苯二甲酸乙二酯(10.6%)、聚醚砜树脂(7.9%),大多数形态为纤维、块、小球、片、薄膜等[46]。鱼类的摄食习性决定其更易摄入微塑料,且野生鱼类体内发现的微塑料形态以纤维为主,可能是由于纤维具有较高的变形性,更易被鱼类摄入[47]。
微塑料的粒径普遍较小,容易被底栖生物、滤食性生物等所误食,继而在生物体内产生一系列毒理效应[48]。世界各地均已报道在水体环境中鱼类、贝类等生物的微塑料污染。大多数鱼类都会主动摄食微塑料,通过吞食、捕食等方式主动摄入悬浮或漂浮在水体中的微塑料颗粒。误食被认为是微塑料进入水生生物体内的主要途径,体型越大的生物体,能够进入体内的微塑料粒径也越大[49-50]。通过解剖和组织切片发现,微米级的微塑料被摄入后会对生物体胃肠道造成机械损伤,堵塞食物通道,产生饱腹感。同时,微塑料还会在消化组织器官中积累,如消化管、胃、肝胰腺、生殖器官、呼吸器官等[51-53]。此外,MOOS等人[54]发现贻贝()在摄入微塑料颗粒后,能够在其细胞中检测到微塑料,继而引发组织炎症、细胞增殖和坏死[55]。
塑料产品为了满足不同的需要,会在生产过程中添加染色剂、增塑剂、阻燃剂等化学添加 剂[56]。据欧盟统计,列入塑料添加剂清单的阻燃剂有38类,包括7种有机磷酸酯;增塑剂有64种,包括9种苯甲酸酯类[57]。以有机磷酸酯为例,有机磷酸酯会导致青鳉()体内分泌系统发生紊乱,激素水平显著变化,进而导致繁殖行为以及繁殖能力下降[58]。同时微塑料粒径微小,比表面积大,更容易吸附有机污染物、重金属等环境污染物。有研究发现,微塑料中所含污染物浓度高出周围水体中几个数量级[3]。微塑料自身较强的疏水性会导致更多污染物富集在生物体内,对生物体的潜在毒性效应升高[59],从而影响生态系统安全以及人体健康。
目前,应用于微塑料分析的方法主要有视觉识别、傅立叶变换红外光谱、拉曼光谱、扫描电子显微镜法、裂解气相色谱-质谱法、液相色谱法等[60]。
视觉识别是指观察者使用肉眼或者体视显微镜,通过观察颜色硬度等特征检测和计数,一般可对1~5 mm的样品进行鉴别。这种方法操作简便,检测成本低。但是微小颗粒计数困难,易错认[61];傅立叶变换红外光谱法利用塑料的特异性红外光谱对微塑料进行识别可有效分析大于500 μm的微塑料,其方法可靠,可快速有效识别不同的微塑料种类,配合新的自动图像分析系统可在短时间内对大量样品进行快速分析。但是无法适用于粒径小于20 μm的微粒[62];拉曼光谱通过散射光谱与光谱库进行比较来识别微塑料、鉴定微粒的聚合物组成,不易破坏样品结构检测,可识别粒径>1 μm的颗粒。但是背景的污染会对检测造成干扰,需要对杂质进行去除,同时此方法对粒径在5~10 μm的粒子识别能力最高,因此会低估样品中微塑料的丰度[63];扫描电子显微镜法生成高分辨率图像可帮助观察者从有机微粒中识别微塑料,但是样品前处理严格,是破坏性检测,不能区分添加剂和吸附物质,且需对电镜下的粒子逐个分析,耗时久,无详细识别信息[64];裂解气相色谱-质谱法对裂解后微塑料样品进行气相色谱-质谱分析,通过获得的谱图与标准光谱图比对来识别分析微塑料种类并进行定量分析,适合于分析大于500 μm的微塑料颗粒,灵敏度高、可靠性强。但一次只能分析一个塑料颗粒,不适用于大量样本分析,且设备复杂,会破坏样品[65];液相色谱法是将微塑料样品溶解于有机溶剂后,通过液-固的物质的量分配比差异,对混合物进行分析鉴别,通过与标准品比对来确定微塑料的类型。该方法对某些微塑料具有较高选择性,但不适用于分析有机溶剂中难溶解的微塑料,适用于极小尺寸样品,无法认知颗粒的物理性质[66]。
目前对于粒径较大的微塑料视觉识别完全可以,且成本低,操作简单;粒径较小肉眼无法识别时,傅立叶变换红外光谱和拉曼光谱能够提供光谱比对以鉴别化学成分,可以满足分析淡水环境中微塑料的需求,且不需要复杂的前处理过程,不会破坏样品,耗时较短。视觉识别、傅立叶变换红外光谱和拉曼光谱是目前使用最多的仪器分析方法[67]。现阶段没有国际统一标准的微塑料仪器分析流程,试验研究中需要根据目的和实际条件择优组合,在实践中不断优化,探索新方法。
淡水环境微塑料已经引起了人们的广泛关注,但在一些关键科学问题上仍存在不足。为能够深入了解淡水环境微塑料的生态影响和人体健康风险,今后的研究建议集中在以下方面:一是建立环境微塑料的标准分析方法,包括样品采集、前处理、仪器分析、数据表达方式等,进而对不同研究之间的数据进行比较,以便全面了解环境微塑料的污染特征和变化趋势;二是开展微塑料的环境质量基准研究,包括水环境质量基准、沉积物环境质量基准和生态质量基准,从而为制定微塑料的环境质量标准奠定基础;三是评估环境微塑料的生态影响和人体健康风险,为政策制定提供理论依据。
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Research progress of microplastics in freshwater environment
He Jianwu1,2, An Lihui2, Qi Hongli1, Corresponding Author
(1. Tianjin Key Laboratory of Aqua-Ecology and Aquaculture, College of Fisheries, Tianjin Agricultural University, Tianjin 300392, China; 2. Chinese Research Academy of Environmental Sciences, Beijing 100012, China)
Environmental microplastics (MPs) are permanent plastic particles, films and fibers with a diameter of less than 5 mm. The occurrences of microplastics have been reported in water, sediments and organisms, and microplastics have been listed by UNEP as one of the top ten environmental science issues to be solved urgently. In order to get a thorough understanding of the microplastics pollution in the freshwater environment, the origin, distribution, migration, potential ecological impact and instrumental analysis of microplastics in freshwater environment were reviewed based on the previous studies in recent years. Scientific prospects for microplastics research in fresh water environment was also put forward. This paper would provide a theoretical reference for investigation, monitoring and evaluation of environmental microplastics.
microplastics; monitoring; source; impact; prospect
X52
A
1008-5394(2021)01-0067-06
10.19640/j.cnki.jtau.2021.01.013
2019-10-11
国家自然科学基金项目(21577137);天津市自然科学基金项目(15JCYBJC23900)
何建武(1994—),男,硕士在读,主要从事水生态毒理学研究。E-mail:hjw171127@163.com。
齐红莉(1978—),女,副教授,硕士,主要从事水生态毒理学及原生动物学研究。E-mail:qihl2000@163.com。
责任编辑:张爱婷