景观图像与风景园林

在漫长的风景园林发展史中，人们不断创造各种图像（图示），以求更方便地记录、分析、评价和创造景观，这些图像（图示）包括绘画、地图、平面图、立面图、剖面图、透视图、模型、照片和视频，等等。

图像都具有概括、简化、抽象和片段化的特点，都是对其表现对象进行部分取舍后的呈现，而景观却无所不包，它不仅具有自然和文化等多重属性，还在动态地演变着，所以用任何一种图像都无法表达出景观的全方位信息。

图像的绘制还不可避免地受到绘图者有意识的主观意图或其潜意识中的文化范式的影响，所以不同的人对同一景观会有完全不同的图像表达，比如同样是对中国园林的描绘，18世纪欧洲传教士绘制的铜版画和中国画家画的山水画就展现出大相径庭的面貌。

我在撰写博士论文期间曾读过美国建筑师摩尔（Charles W.Moore）于1993年出版的《园林诗学》（The Poetics of Gardens）一书。摩尔用大量手绘图示，特别是分层图示对世界各地的园林做了独辟蹊径的分析。他将园林中的地形、植物、水面和建筑等剥离开来，分成不同的层，分别画出不同层的平面图或轴测图，通过这些图示，读者可以更清晰更直观地把握每个园林的空间和结构，从而更好地理解各类园林的特点。

摩尔也用这种方法对拙政园进行了分层分析，但与对欧洲园林的图示分析相比，对拙政园的分析就显得颇为勉强。原因在于与欧洲历史园林不同，中国的文人园林本就不是依据平立剖面图设计出来的。中国园林中的山、石、水、植物和建筑是融为一体、不可分割的。将中国园林中的各种要素分离，绘出分层图示，看似理性科学，而实质上却是机械地看待中国园林，忽视了中国园林特有的有机随意和模糊神秘的特质。

相比于这些分层图示，《园林诗学》中引用的几幅圆明园40景图咏更能反映出中国园林的空间本质。我们今天可以用多种不同的图像媒介来分析中国园林，但任何图像与其表现对象之间都存在不一致性。我认为，最能真实地表达中国园林空间和结构的图像还是中国的山水画，因为中国园林特有的山水融合、诗情画意、重写意、言意境、讲韵味、表高洁的品质也只有中国山水画能够体现出来。事实上，中国古代的造园家与画家本就是合二为一的，著名的造园家几乎皆工绘事。画中寓诗情，园林参画意，山水画就是纸上的园林，园林就是现实中的山水画。

这也许就是为什么今天我们模拟中国传统园林所建造的几乎所有作品都不具有历史园林的神韵的原因——今天的园林都是通过平立剖面图进行设计推敲，依据准确的工程图进行施工建造的，这些设计图和工程图在本质上与摩尔书中的分层图示并没有差别。通过这些图示设计和建造出的园林即使具有中国古代园林的外表，也往往失去了古代园林的精神。

如此可见，设计成果在很大程度上受制于设计媒介。图像是设计师的工作语言，也是设计师传递建造信息的方法和手段。不同的图像思考会带来不同的设计结果，就如同山水画造就了独特的中国园林，而透视图则影响了欧洲文艺复兴和巴洛克时期的园林。

许多著名的设计师都有独特的图像工作方式。我在博士论文中提到了英国园林师莱普顿（Humphry Repton），他曾创造了透明图纸叠加的设计方法，用水彩将现状透视图和设计透视图分别画在透明纸上，通过将两张图进行叠加比较，现场的改变和设计后的效果便一目了然。用这样的叠图方法，他将许多原野改造为优美如画的风景。

仍然是在读博士期间，我曾考察过英国建筑师斯特林（James Stirling）设计的几栋建筑，特别是斯图加特国立美术馆。这个建筑内外空间的交融以及建筑与城市街道的衔接非常奇妙，这吸引我查阅了更多斯特林的设计资料。我发现他的设计轴测图极为独特，尤其是一些建筑的底视轴测图。或许正是通过这些独特的图示，他看到了更多别人见不到的视角，他的建筑也因此与众不同。

针对于不同类型的设计，设计师可以选择最有效和最恰当的图像媒介表达。孙筱祥先生在中国最早使用等高线竖向图，设计出了杭州花港观鱼舒缓起伏的地表；孟兆祯院士用独特的聚丙乙烯熨烫假山模型的工作方法，创作了北京奥运森林公园中的“林泉高致”山水景观；古斯塔夫森（Kathryn Gustafson）惯用黏土模型来分析、研究、表达和展示地表的变化；我自己也曾通过纸模型推敲出新加坡花园节上的一个空间复杂的小花园。

随着时代的发展，今天的设计师能够使用的图像媒介更为多样。数字技术可以让人们在虚拟世界中看到设计空间的形态、质感、光影，以及在其中的动态体验，并预知规划设计行为对某些环境因素可能产生的影响；借助VR技术，人们可以在虚拟空间获得身临其境的体验；3D打印技术可以按照任何比例真实展现各种复杂设计的整体或局部……由这些技术导出的图纸、图示、影像、视频、模型等都为我们研究和传达设计提供了非常直观和准确的方式，并有可能反过来改变我们传统的设计思维。未来，借助数字技术将衍生出更多种类的图像媒介，这些图像媒介为设计师的创造带来无限的可能，也为公众理解、感受和体验景观提供了更直接的途径。

景观图像在不断地发展着，虽然绘画、图纸和手工模型仍然是设计传统的一部分，但新的媒介带来了更多的展示和传达设计的选择。风景园林师需要不断地学习，自觉地使用合适的图像媒介，更好地推演设计、传达设计信息和展示设计成果。

主编：王向荣教授

2017年12月10日

Landscape Image in Landscape Architecture

Through the long-run history of landscape architecture, people constantly create a variety of images (diagrams) in order to more conveniently record, analyze, evaluate and create the landscape.These images (diagrams) include drawings, maps, plans, elevations,sections, perspectives, models, photographs, videos, etc.

Images are characterized by generalization, simplification,abstraction and fragmentation which are all presented after partial selection of the designated objects.But the landscape is allencompassing.It not only owns multiple attributes such as nature and culture, but also evolves dynamically, so it cannot express the comprehensive information of landscape with any kind of image.

Image is also inevitably influenced by the drawer's conscious and subjective intentions or cultural background subconsciously,so that different people may have completely different image representations of the same landscape.For example, the drypoint created by 18thcentury European missionary and landscape paintings by Chinese artists are on a completely different look regarding to the same depiction of Chinese gardens.

When I was writing my doctoral dissertation, I once readThe Poetics of Gardenswritten by American architect Charles W.Moore in 1993.Moore used a plenty of hand-drawn diagrams,especially layering diagrams, making a unique analysis of gardens worldwide.He sliced the landform, vegetation, water and architecture into different layers and drew plans or axonometric drawings of separated layers.Through these diagrams, readers can grasp the space and structure of each garden more clearly and intuitively, so as to better understand the characteristics of various types of garden.

Moore also used this method to analyzeHumble Administrator Gardenin layers.Yet compared with the graphic analysis of European gardens, that of Chinese gardens seem rather reluctant.The reason is that, unlike European historical gardens, Chinese literati gardens are not designed on the basis of plans, sections and elevations.The mountains and hills, rockeries, water, plants and architectures in Chinese gardens are integrated as a whole and inseparable.Although it seems rational and scientific to split off all elements in the garden and draw a layered diagram, in essence it is a mechanical perspective on Chinese garden, ignoring the specific characteristic of organic randomness and vague mysteriousness of Chinese garden.

Compared with these layering diagrams, several pieces of the 40-view Drawings of Old Summer Palace cited inThe Poetics of Gardenscan better reflect the spatial essence of Chinese gardens.Today we can use a variety of image medias to analyze Chinese gardens, but any image expression is inconsistent with its object.In my perspective, the image that can most truthfully express the space and structure of Chinese gardens is still Chinese landscape paintings.Because the unique qualities of Chinese gardens can only be exactly reflected in Chinese landscape painting, which includes the mountain and water integration, poetry and idyllic expression,freehand drawing, artistic conception, lingering charm and noble motif.In fact, ancient Chinese gardeners and painters were united,and almost famous gardeners were also good at painting.The painting contains the poetic emotions while the garden contains the picturesque conceptions.Thus landscape painting is the garden on the paper and in turn the garden makes the landscape painting in reality.

And that's probably why almost all the Chinese traditional gardens we're simulating today is in absence of the charm of historical gardens.Nowadays, all landscapes are designed by plans,sections and elevations, and constructed according to accurate engineering drawings.These designs and engineering drawings are essentially of no difference from the layering diagrams in Moore's book.Even though the gardens designed and constructed through these diagrams have the appearance of ancient Chinese gardens,they easily fail to embodying the spirit of ancient gardens.

As such, design results are largely constrained by the design media.Image is not only the working language of designers, but also the method and tool for designers to transmit construction information.Different thinking of image will lead to different design results, just as landscape painting has created the unique Chinese garden, while perspective has influenced the European Renaissance and gardens in Baroque period.

Many famous designers have their unique ways of image working.British landscape designer Humphry Repton, whom I’ve mentioned in my doctoral dissertation has once created a design method by overlaying transparent drawings, using watercolor to draw the current site perspective and design perspective on transparent paper separately, superimposing the two papers and comparing the changes, thus the outcome of the design will be clear at a glance.By doing so, he transformed many wild fields into picturesque landscapes.

As a doctorand, I visited several buildings designed by British architect James Stirling, especially the Stuttgart National Gallery.The blended inside and outside space, the connection between the building and city streets were fantastic, which led me to read more about Stirling's design, through which I found his axonometric drawing extremely unique, especially some architectural axonometric drawings from bottom view.Perhaps it was through these unique diagrams that he saw more perspectives than anyone else, which finally made his architecture outstanding.

Regarding to various types of design, designers may choose the most effective and appropriate image media for expression.Mr.Sun Xiaoxiang was the first to use contour line to depict an elevation map in China, which contributed the smooth and wavy land surface in theHua Gang Guan Yu Parkin Hangzhou.Academician Meng Zhaozhen created the landscape ofLin Quan Gao Zhiin Beijing Olympic Forest Park with his unique rockery method of pressing model with polypropylene.Kathryn Gustafson uses clay models to analyze, study, and express the changes of land surface habitually.And I have once designed a small garden at the Singapore Garden Festival with its complex space structure deliberated by paper models.

With the development through times, designers can use more diverse image media today.Digital technology allows people to see the shape, texture, light and shadow of the designed space in the virtual world, as well as experience in it dynamically, and predict the possible impact of planning and design behavior on some environmental factors.With the help of VR technique,people can get an immersive experience in virtual space.3D printing can exactly depict the whole or part of the complex design in any proportion...The drawings, diagrams, images,videos and models derived from these techniques provide us with a very intuitive and accurate way to accomplish design research and expression, and may change our traditional design thinking in turn.In the future, digital technology will give rise to more kinds of image media, which will not only bring unlimited possibilities for designers’ creation, but also provide a more straightforward way for the public to understand, feel and experience the landscape.

Landscape images are constantly evolving.Yet paintings,drawings and manual models are still part of the design tradition,new medias have brought more and better options for presenting and delivering design proposals.Landscape architects need to continually learn and consciously utilize the appropriate image media to better deductively design, deliver design information and present design results.

Translator: WANG Xi-yue

Chief Editor: Prof.WANG Xiang-rong

December 10th, 2017