林海敏 孔玲玲 于金明 综述 韩大力 审校
原发性肝癌的发病率位居全球恶性肿瘤的第五位,中国恶性肿瘤发病率第四位,在全球和中国癌症相关死亡原因中分别位居第二位和第三位[1-2]。在原发性肝癌中,肝细胞癌(hepatocellular carcinoma,HCC)占75%,胆管细胞癌占15%,其余为混合型肝癌等[3]。HCC的根治性治疗主要包括手术、肝移植和消融术。然而,就诊时仅少数病例为可切除病变[4],其他治疗方式包括经导管动脉化学栓塞(transcatheter arterial chemoembolization,TACE)、放射治疗、化疗和靶向治疗等。随着放疗技术的发展,放射治疗对肝功能良好的各期别HCC的治疗均具有重要作用,而且放射治疗联合其他治疗(TACE、靶向治疗等)已经成为不可切除HCC的重要治疗手段[5-6]。本文重点阐述外照射放疗在各期别HCC治疗中的进展。
大多数HCC患者伴有不同程度的肝脏基础疾病,如肝炎和肝硬化,20%~30%肝癌患者可从根治性手术中获益[7-8]。射频消融(radiofrequency ablation,RFA)治疗不可切除小HCC(直径≤5 cm的HCC)的局部控制率达70%~90%[9],然而电极针[10]可能损伤穿刺路径周围器官而引起严重并发症,如出血、胆汁瘘等,而且病灶周边血流会降低RFA的热效应。研究表明,小HCC立体定向放射治疗(stereotactic body radiation therapy,SBRT)与RFA治疗局部控制率相似均达90%以上[11-14],生存期[9]亦相似(6.4年vs.6.5年),但对于肿瘤直径>2 cm的小HCC[9],SBRT疗效优于RFA,且无创。Su等[15]采用SBRT治疗132例不可行手术切除的原发性或复发性小肝癌,1年局部控制率达90.9%,1、3和5年的总生存率(overall survival,OS)分别为94.1%、73.5%和64.3%;无进展生存率(progression-free survival,PFS)分别为82.7%、58.3%和36.4%;而3度及以上肝毒性为8.3%;多因素分析发现,患者OS与Child-Pugh分级有关,PFS与病灶数目有关。Child-Pugh B患者的OS少于Child-Pugh A,多结节病灶患者的PFS少于单发病灶。Su等[16]回顾性分析比较SBRT与手术治疗小HCC的疗效,结果显示SBRT与手术治疗的1、2和5年的OS及PFS差异均无统计学意义。肝毒性相似,但SBRT治疗肝脏出血、肝区疼痛、体质量减轻等并发症发生率低于手术治疗,其主要不良反应为急性恶心。SBRT治疗小肝癌SBRT的剂量为18~50 Gy/1~10 f,6~15 Gy/次[15-22]。
SBRT的不良反应包括急性不良反应和慢性不良反应。急性不良反应通常包括转氨酶升高、白细胞减少、血小板减少和恶心[18,21],多为1~3级。慢性不良反应则相对少见,主要发生在治疗6个月后,包括器官功能失代偿和胃十二指肠溃疡,少数患者因肝衰竭而死亡[19,22]。
肝脏为剂量限制性器官,既往对大肝癌不建议放疗,但近些年的研究表明,大肝癌亦可采用外照射放疗,其疗效和安全性较好。Guarneri等[23]回顾性分析肿瘤直径>3 cm的HCC患者采用SBRT治疗的局部控制率和OS,2年局部控制率和OS分别为100.0%和57.9%。Gkika等[24]报道大肝癌(直径5~10 cm)采用SBRT治疗局部控制率高,不良反应较小,47例HCC患者给予平均45 Gy,3~12次的SBRT治疗,结果显示1年局部控制率为77%,中位OS(median OS,mOS)为9个月,2度及以上胃肠道反应占6.4%,Child-Pugh评分肝功能恶化占10.6%,1例患者发生放射性肝损伤,1例患者发生肝衰竭。Que等[25]报道SBRT治疗巨大HCC(直径≥10cm)可使肿瘤实质缩小,延长患者生存期,22例不可行手术切除的巨大肝癌SBRT治疗后,客观缓解率(objective response rate,ORR)、1年OS、1年PFS和mOS分别为83.6%、55.6%、50.0%和11个月,不良反应为中度。
据估计,10%~40%的HCC患者就诊时合并门静脉癌栓(portal vein tumor thrombus,PVTT),PVTT可导致门脉高压、肝功能恶化、肝内或肝外转移,是HCC预后不良因素之一[26]。对于HCC合并PVTT,欧美指南[27]推荐索拉非尼单药治疗,中国2016版肝癌合并门脉癌栓诊疗共识[28]则根据PVTT类型(Ⅰ0型:镜下瘤栓;Ⅰ型:门静脉段及以上的癌栓;Ⅱ型:门静脉左/右支癌栓;Ⅲ型:门静脉主干癌栓;Ⅳ型:肠系膜上静脉癌栓)、ECOG评分和Child-Pugh分级推荐治疗方式:1)Ⅰ/Ⅱ型、Child-Pugh A和ECOG 0~1分推荐外科手术治疗(证据等级Ⅱb,A级推荐);2)不可手术切除Ⅰ/Ⅱ型、Child-Pugh A推荐TACE(证据等级Ⅱb,B级推荐);3)不能手术的Ⅰ/Ⅱ/Ⅲ型和Child-Pugh A和Ⅰ/Ⅱ型推荐三维适形放疗或调强放疗外照射放疗(证据等级Ⅱb,B级推荐),SBRT(证据等级Ⅱb,A级);3)Child-Pugh C,伴腹水或胃十二指肠出血以全身治疗为主(证据等级Ⅰb,A级推荐)。Nakazawa等[29]报道,放疗比索拉菲尼更适合作为HCC合并门静脉主干及其大分支癌栓的一线治疗。放疗联合其他治疗可改善患者预后。Koo等[30]报道,放疗联合TACE与单独行TACE治疗HCC合并PVTT的有效率分别为43%和14%,而且联合治疗OS更长(平均11.7个月vs.4.7个月)。Zhang等[31]报道放疗联合TACE治疗HCC的1年OS明显高于单独TACE治疗(33%vs.7%)。Yoon等[32]报道晚期HCC可采用TACE联合放疗治疗可稳定门脉癌栓。Kim等[33]采用大分割螺旋断层放射治疗HCC合并门脉癌栓,发现有效组的mOS较无效组mOS更长(13.9个月vs.6.9个月)。Tang等[34]比较三维适形放疗联合TACE与手术治疗HCC合并门静脉癌栓生存期,结果显示放疗联合TACE治疗的mOS长于手术(12.3个月vs.10个月),放疗联合TACE组1、2、3年的OS分别为51.6%、28.4%和19.9%,手术组分别为40.1%、17.0%和13.6%。Ⅱ期临床研究表明[35],TACE联合放疗和热疗治疗门脉癌栓,总体ORR和放疗野内ORR分别为43.5%和69.6%。荟萃分析表明[36],TACE联合放疗显著提高HCC合并PVTT患者的ORR和OS,但发生3度及以上白细胞减少和血小板减少亦高于单独行TACE治疗。因此,HCC合并癌栓可采用姑息性放疗联合其他治疗,但需注意骨髓抑制的发生和处理。
Shim等[37]报道局部晚期HCC栓塞不完全行放疗可巩固疗效,73例HCC患者行TACE后发现病灶不完全栓塞,其中35例反复行TACE治疗,37例采用局部放疗,TACE联合放疗组患者的2年OS明显高于反复单独行TACE组(36.8%vs.14.3%)。Oh等[38]报道了不可行手术切除的HCC患者不完全TACE后三维适形放疗的疗效,结果1、2年的OS分别为72.0%、46.5%。Paik等[39]报道,不完全TACE患者采用SBRT治疗的2、5年OS分别为73%和53%,疗效与完全TACE或根治性治疗相似。综上所述,肝癌TACE治疗后,可行放疗巩固疗效。
2013年有学者提出采用放疗联合索拉菲尼治疗HCC[40-41]。细胞实验表明[40]索拉菲尼以时间依赖方式提高人HCC细胞株的放射敏感性。索拉菲尼具有诱导DNA损伤和抑制DNA修复功能,降低放射激活的NF-κB,进而促进放射诱导的凋亡。Cha等[41]报道了18例晚期HCC患者行放疗联合索拉非尼治疗,13例患者为原发肿瘤放疗,5例为可测量转移病灶放疗,3度及以上不良反应为手足综合征(17%)、血小板减少(17%)、十二指肠出血(6%)和AST升高(6%),患者mOS为7.8个月(95%CI:3.0,12.6),1年OS为37%,并发症发生率相对较高,生存并未显著延长,但该研究样本量少、缺乏对比且患者分期较晚。放疗联合索拉非尼治疗局部晚期HCC具备潜在可行性。
与肝内病灶比较,HCC肝外转移病灶对患者的预后影响更大。HCC最常见的转移部位为肺,其次为骨、淋巴结和肾上腺。Uchino等[42]报道的342例HCC患者有23例(7.6%)直接死于肝外转移;其中,17例由于肺转移而死于呼吸衰竭;5例因脑转移而死于脑出血;1例由于骨转移骨折而死于出血。骨转移直接导致患者死亡少见,但骨转移会导致病理性骨折,进而引起患者一般状况变差。因此,对肝外转移灶的治疗就显得十分重要。Habermehl等[43]报道了原发性肝癌骨转移姑息性放疗有效率为77%。Jiang等[44]对伴有胸闷、血痰和咳嗽症状的HCC肺转移患者进行姑息性放疗,有效率达92.3%。姑息性放疗减轻疼痛,降低病理性骨折的风险和减轻呼吸系统症状。淋巴结为HCC肝外转移相对常见的部位之一,提示预后差。Wee等[45]报道HCC淋巴结转移有症状与无症状的mOS分别为3.8个月和10.7个月,淋巴结转移放疗的有效率为56.7%,放疗有效的患者生存期延长。Yuan等[46]报道了HCC肾上腺转移放疗的疗效,结果显示1、2、5年OS分别为59.9%、35.0%和12.9%,mOS为15个月,螺旋断层放疗与二维和三维放疗毒性反应相似,但OS高于二维和三维放疗。可见,肝外转移姑息性放疗可降低并发症风险和改善患者预后。
粒子束治疗指利用加速的重离子或回旋或同步加速器产生的高能质子在其停止前到达病变部位并释放巨大能量(Bragg峰),达到杀灭肿瘤细胞目的的治疗方式[10]。Kato等[47]报道Ⅰ、Ⅱ期HCC合并肝硬化患者采用碳离子治疗的疗效,24位患者接受49.5~79.5 GyE/15 f,每周5次,所有患者均未出现严重的不良反应,总有效率为71%,1、3、5年的局部控制率和OS分别为92%和92%,81%和50%,81%和25%。Kimura等[48]采用质子束治疗大HCC,22例患者接受60.8~85.8 GyE/22 f质子束照射,2年的局部控制率和OS分别为87%和52.4%。
碳离子束细胞毒性比质子束强,但质子束治疗可任意方向照射,适用于不适合其他治疗方式的情况。当能够精确调节与胃肠道和肝门部邻近的病灶的放射剂量和照射范围时,质子束治疗的疗效优于重离子治疗[10]。粒子束治疗是克服常规放疗缺点的有效治疗方式,医用粒子束需要由大型医疗设备产生,而设备的数量制约着其临床应用。未来随着医疗设备的发展和普及,粒子束治疗应用将会增加,临床应用前景会更加广阔。
肝移植是HCC另一根治性治疗方式。但由于肝源数量远少于等待肝移植患者数,仅有少数肝癌患者能接受肝移植治疗。美国肝病研究学会指南[27]推荐等待肝移植时间超过6个月的患者行移植前局部的过渡治疗,避免因肿瘤进展而失去肝移植机会。HCC患者肝移植前局部治疗的主要目的为:1)预防肿瘤进展;2)增加肝移植率;3)降低术后复发率[49]。TACE和消融技术如RFA、微波消融和经皮无水乙醇注射为肝移植前最常用的“桥梁”治疗,但上述治疗方式有创,对相对较大的病变控制欠佳,且影响肝功能。O'Connor等[49]报道10例HCC患者等待肝移植时行SBRT治疗,5年OS和PFS均为100%。Sapisochin等[50]报道了SBRT、TACE和RAF作为肝癌肝移植前的过渡治疗,发现SBRT组、TACE组和RAF组肝移植后1、3、5年的并发症和生存率差异均无统计学意义。SBRT可替代传统的肝癌肝移植前的“桥梁”治疗。
由于高度适形技术的进步,大分割放疗或常规分割外照射放疗联合其他治疗适用于治疗肝功能评价为低风险的各期别的HCC。本研究组正在进行基于钆塞酸二钠增强MR显像肝功能预留模式下原发性HCC自主呼吸控制的精确放疗的临床研究,对于肝功能受损者以及合并肝外其他疾患的患者,需要谨慎应用。随着更多随机临床试验的结果公布,放疗与全身治疗方法的紧密配合,将有可能使得更多的肝癌患者获益。
[1]Torre LA,Bray F,Siegel RL,et al.Global cancer statistics,2012[J].CA:A Cancer J Clin,2015,65(2):87‐108.
[2]Chen W,Zheng R,Baade PD,et al.Cancer statistics in china,2015[J].CA:A Cancer J Clin,2016,66(2):115‐132.
[3]Center MM,Jemal A.International trends in liver cancer incidence rates[J].Cancer Epidemiol,2011,20(11):2362‐2368.
[4]Takeda A,Sanuki N,Tsurugai Y,et al.Phase 2 study of stereotactic body radiotherapy and optional transarterial chemoembolization for solitary hepatocellular carcinoma not amenable to resection and radiofrequency ablation[J].Cancer,2016,122(13):2041‐2049.
[5]Kudo M,Matsui O,Izumi N,et al.Jsh consensus‐based clinical prac‐tice guidelines for the management of hepatocellular carcinoma:2014 update by the liver cancer study group of japan[J].Liver can‐cer,2014,3(3‐4):458‐468.
[6]Song P,Tobe RG,Inagaki Y,et al.The management of hepatocellu‐lar carcinoma around the world:A comparison of guidelines from 2001 to 2011[J].Liver Int,2012,32(7):1053‐1063.
[7]Poon RT,Fan ST,Lo CM,et al.Long‐term survival and pattern of re‐currence after resection of small hepatocellular carcinoma in pa‐tients with preserved liver function:Implications for a strategy of salvage transplantation[J].Ann Surg Oncol,2002,235(3):373‐382.
[8]Truty MJ,Vauthey JN.Surgical resection of high‐risk hepatocellular carcinoma:Patient selection,preoperative considerations,and op‐erative technique[J].Ann Surg Oncol,2010,17(5):1219‐1225.
[9]Seo YS,Kim MS,Yoo HJ,et al.Radiofrequency ablation versus ste‐reotactic body radiotherapy for small hepatocellular carcinoma:A markov model‐based analysis[J].Cancer Med,2016,5(11):3094‐3101.
[10]Kondo Y,Kimura O,Shimosegawa T.Radiation therapy has been shown to be adaptable for various stages of hepatocellular carcino‐ma[J].World J Gastroenter,2015,21(1):94‐101.
[11]Kang JK,Kim MS,Cho CK,et al.Stereotactic body radiation therapy for inoperable hepatocellular carcinoma as a local salvage treat‐ment after incomplete transarterial chemoembolization[J].Cancer,2012,118(21):5424‐5431.
[12]Huertas A,Baumann AS,Saunier‐Kubs F,et al.Stereotactic body ra‐diation therapy as an ablative treatment for inoperable hepatocel‐lular carcinoma[J].Radiother Oncol,2015,115(2):211‐216.
[13]Yoon SM,Lim YS,Park MJ,et al.Stereotactic body radiation therapy as an alternative treatment for small hepatocellular carcinoma[J].PloS One,2013,8(11):e79854.
[14]Sanuki N,Takeda A,Oku Y,et al.Stereotactic body radiotherapy for small hepatocellular carcinoma:A retrospective outcome analysis in 185 patients[J].Acta Oncol,2014,53(3):399‐404.
[15]Su TS,Liang P,Lu HZ,et al.Stereotactic body radiation therapy for small primary or recurrent hepatocellular carcinoma in 132 chinese patients[J].J Surg Oncol,2016,113(2):181‐187.
[16]Su TS,Liang P,Liang J,et al.Long‐term survival analysis of stereotac‐tic ablative radiotherapy versus liver resection for small hepatocel‐lular carcinoma[J].Int J Radi Oncol Biol Phys,2017,98(3):639‐646.
[17]Louis C,Dewas S,Mirabel X,et al.Stereotactic radiotherapy of he‐patocellular carcinoma:Preliminary results[J].Technol Cancer Res Treat,2010,9(5):479‐487.
[18]Bujold A,Dawson LA.Stereotactic radiation therapy and selective internal radiation therapy for hepatocellular carcinoma[J].Cancer Radiother,2011,15(1):54‐63.
[19]Mendez Romero A,Wunderink W,Hussain SM,et al.Stereotactic body radiation therapy for primary and metastatic liver tumors:A single institution phase Ⅰ‐Ⅱ study[J].Acta Oncol(Stockholm,Swe‐den),2006,45(7):831‐837.
[20]Takeda A,Takahashi M,Kunieda E,et al.Hypofractionated stereo‐tactic radiotherapy with and without transarterial chemoemboliza‐tion for small hepatocellular carcinoma not eligible for other abla‐tion therapies:Preliminary results for efficacy and toxicity[J].Hep‐at Res,2008,38(1):60‐69.
[21]Choi BO,Jang HS,Kang KM,et al.Fractionated stereotactic radio‐therapy in patients with primary hepatocellular carcinoma[J].Jap J Clin Oncol,2006,36(3):154‐158.
[22]Kwon JH,Bae SH,Kim JY,et al.Long‐term effect of stereotactic body radiation therapy for primary hepatocellular carcinoma ineligible for local ablation therapy or surgical resection.Stereotactic radio‐therapy for liver cancer[J].BMC Cancer,2010,10(475.
[23]Guarneri A,Franco P,Trino E,et al.Stereotactic ablative radiothera‐py in the treatment of hepatocellular carcinoma >3 cm[J].Med On‐col,2016,33(10):104.
[24]Gkika E,Schultheiss M,Bettinger D,et al.Excellent local control and tolerance profile after stereotactic body radiotherapy of advanced hepatocellular carcinoma[J].Radia Oncol,2017,12(1):116.
[25]Que JY,Lin LC,Lin KL,et al.The efficacy of stereotactic body radia‐tion therapy on huge hepatocellular carcinoma unsuitable for oth‐er local modalities[J].Radia Oncol,2014,9(120):1‐8.
[26]Chen MY,Wang YC,Wu TH,et al.Efficacy of external beam radiation‐based treatment plus locoregional therapy for hepatocellular carci‐noma associated with portal vein tumor thrombosis[J].Biomed Red Int,2016,2016(6017406):1‐9.
[27]Bruix J,Sherman M.Management of hepatocellular carcinoma:An update[J].Hepatology,2011,53(3):1020‐1022.
[28]Cheng S,Chen M,Cai J.Chinese expert consensus on multidisci‐plinary diagnosis and treatment of hepatocellular carcinoma with portal vein tumor thrombus:2016 edition[J].Oncotarget,2017,8(5):8867‐8876.
[29]Nakazawa T,Hidaka H,Shibuya A,et al.Overall survival in response to sorafenib versus radiotherapy in unresectable hepatocellular car‐cinoma with major portal vein tumor thrombosis:Propensity score analysis[J].BMC Gastroenterol,2014,(14):84.
[30]Koo JE,Kim JH,Lim YS,et al.Combination of transarterial chemo‐embolization and three‐dimensional conformal radiotherapy for hepatocellular carcinoma with inferior vena cava tumor thrombus[J].Int J Radiat Oncol Biol Phys,2010,78(1):180‐187.
[31]Zhang XB,Wang JH,Yan ZP,et al.Hepatocellular carcinoma with main portal vein tumor thrombus:Treatment with 3‐dimensional conformal radiotherapy after portal vein stenting and transarterial chemoembolization[J].Cancer,2009,115(6):1245‐1252.
[32]Yoon SM,Lim YS,Won HJ,et al.Radiotherapy plus transarterial che‐moembolization for hepatocellular carcinoma invading the portal vein:Long‐term patient outcomes[J].Int J Radiat Oncol Biol Phys,2012,82(5):2004‐2011.
[33]Kim JY,Yoo EJ,Jang JW,et al.Hypofractionated radiotheapy using helical tomotherapy for advanced hepatocellular carcinoma with portal vein tumor thrombosis[J].Radiat Oncol,2013,(8):15.
[34]Tang QH,Li AJ,Yang GM,et al.Surgical resection versus conformal radiotherapy combined with tace for resectable hepatocellular car‐cinoma with portal vein tumor thrombus:A comparative study[J].World J Surg,2013,37(6):1362‐1370.
[35]Yu JI,Park HC,Jung SH,et al.Combination treatment with transarte‐rial chemoembolization,radiotherapy,and hyperthermia(cert)for hepatocellular carcinoma with portal vein tumor thrombosis:Final results of a prospective phaseⅡtrial[J].Oncotarget,2017,8(32):52651‐52664.
[36]Zhao Q,Zhu K,Yue J,et al.Comparison of intra‐arterial chemoem‐bolization with and without radiotherapy for advanced hepatocel‐lular carcinoma with portal vein tumor thrombosis:A meta‐analy‐sis[J].Ther Clin Risk Manag,2017,(13):21‐31.
[37]Shim SJ,Seong J,Han KH,et al.Local radiotherapy as a complement to incomplete transcatheter arterial chemoembolization in locally advanced hepatocellular carcinoma[J].Liver Inter,2005,25(6):1189‐1196.
[38]Oh D,Lim DH,Park HC,et al.Early three‐dimensional conformal ra‐diotherapy for patients with unresectable hepatocellular carcino‐ma after incomplete transcatheter arterial chemoembolization:A prospective evaluation of efficacy and toxicity[J].Am J Clini Oncol,2010,33(4):370‐375.
[39]Paik EK,Kim MS,Jang WI,et al.Benefits of stereotactic ablative ra‐diotherapy combined with incomplete transcatheter arterial che‐moembolization in hepatocellular carcinoma[J].Radiat Oncol,2016,11(22.
[40]Yu W,Gu K,Yu Z,et al.Sorafenib potentiates irradiation effect in he‐patocellular carcinoma in vitro and in vivo[J].Cancer Lett,2013,329(1):109‐117.
[41]Cha J,Seong J,Lee IJ,et al.Feasibility of sorafenib combined with lo‐cal radiotherapy in advanced hepatocellular carcinoma[J].Yonsei Medi J,2013,54(5):1178‐1185.
[42]Uchino K,Tateishi R,Shiina S,et al.Hepatocellular carcinoma with extrahepatic metastasis:Clinical features and prognostic factors[J].Cancer,2011,117(19):4475‐4483.
[43]Habermehl D,Haase K,Rieken S,et al.Defining the role of palliative radiotherapy in bone metastasis from primary liver cancer:An analysis of survival and treatment efficacy[J].Tumori,2011,97(5):609‐613.
[44]Jiang W,Zeng ZC,Zhang JY,et al.Palliative radiation therapy for pul‐monary metastases from hepatocellular carcinoma[J].Clinic Exp Metast,2012,29(3):197‐205.
[45]Wee CW,Kim K,Chie EK,et al.Prognostic stratification and nomo‐gram for survival prediction in hepatocellular carcinoma patients treated with radiotherapy for lymph node metastasis[J].Brit J Radi‐ol,2016,89(1065):20160383.
[46]Yuan BY,Hu Y,Zhang L,et al.Radiotherapy for adrenal gland metas‐tases from hepatocellular carcinoma[J].Clin Transl Oncol,2017,19(9):1154‐1160.
[47]Kato H,Tsujii H,Miyamoto T,et al.Results of the first prospective study of carbon ion radiotherapy for hepatocellular carcinoma with liver cirrhosis[J].Int J Radiat Oncol Biol Phys,2004,59(5):1468‐1476.
[48]Kimura K,Nakamura T,Ono T,et al.Clinical results of proton beam therapy for hepatocellular carcinoma over 5 cm[J].Hepatol Res,2017,47(13):1368‐1374.
[49]O'Connor JK,Trotter J,Davis GL,et al.Long‐term outcomes of ste‐reotactic body radiation therapy in the treatment of hepatocellular cancer as a bridge to transplantation[J].Liver Trans,2012,18(8):949‐954.
[50]Sapisochin G,Barry A,Doherty M,et al.Stereotactic body radiother‐apy vs.Tace or rfa as a bridge to transplant in patients with hepato‐cellular carcinoma.An intention‐to‐treat analysis[J].J Hepat,2017,67(1):92‐99.