修复地球表面肌肤——德国矿区生态修复再利用理论与实践

（德）汉斯-约阿希姆·马德尔 孔洞一 崔庆伟

修复地球表面肌肤
——德国矿区生态修复再利用理论与实践

（德）汉斯-约阿希姆·马德尔 孔洞一 崔庆伟＊

在目前资源危机日益加剧的全球城市化进程中，采矿区就像大地肌肤上的疮疤一样需要人们的呵护。德国作为工业最为发达的资本主义国家之一，在矿区修复再生领域积累了极为丰富的经验，取得了举世瞩目的成就。介绍了德国在矿区生态修复和再利用方面的一些思想理念与操作方式，以望对中国矿区修复改造相关的管理、规划设计与工程实践有所借鉴。根据其主要流程与工作内容，具体从以下4个方面展开论述：问题评估与机构安排、法律基础与规划流程、修复技术与自然过程、社会参与和功能转换。

德国；规划流程；修复技术；社会参与；再利用

随着世界人口增长和生活水平的提高，资源消耗量越来越大。这些资源大部分都隐藏在地球表层，他们为动植物生长提供能量，也为二氧化碳的吸收和氧气的供给起着重要作用。这些资源为我们人类生存提供基础条件，而多数人却不知道地球表面就像人的皮肤一样敏感——它是一个由各种无机物、土壤、水、微生物和动植物等组成的高度复杂的生态系统。

在德国，每天有66hm2的土地成为居住或交通用地，自然资源也因此大量消失[1]。到2030年，这一数字将减少至30hm2，但依然有大量土地被占用。人们似乎已经习惯把土地作为随手可得的免费资源肆意攫取，矿产资源更是如此——过去200多年德国的褐煤开采、历史上的殖民地矿区以及目前高速发展中的中国对矿产资源的集中采掘已造成大面积亟待修复的大地表皮（图1）。

“修复”的本意是恢复可利用耕地或牧场的生产性能力，目前则更强调让土地恢复到自然保护和自我生息的状态。人们也逐渐认识到：对于“地球皮肤”的每一处伤害都必须遵循一个治疗过程慢慢恢复；修复过程以及开发再利用也应该考虑到人类干预和合理的规划流程。德国在矿区修复改造领域积累了较为丰富的经验，原东德地区的褐煤矿区修复以及鲁尔区的工业遗产改造项目成效斐然[2]。借鉴德国矿区修复改造项目的运作方式，本文将结合具体案例从以下4个方面对其主要规划流程和工作内容进行介绍，希望对中国目前的矿区生态修复与改造再利用实践有所启示。这4个方面工作包括：问题评估与机构安排、法律基础与规划流程、修复技术与自然过程、社会参与和功能转换。

1 中国西部甘肃地区的一处废弃矿坑Mining pit in Gansu province, west China

2 德国萨克森州褐煤矿的采矿区与辐射影响区Mining areas and radiation affected areas in Saxony region in Germany

1 问题评估与机构安排

废弃矿区修复改造作为一项占地规模广、持续时间长且耗资巨大的系统工程，在实际运作过程中首先需要对矿区环境问题进行评估，同时要考虑制度设计与机构设置等管理层面的问题。尤其对于土地权属发生变化和利益相关者较为复杂的区域，需要通过组织各方协商和建立合作平台形成较为明确的组织管理机构，并设计合理的融资渠道与利益分配方式等。

20世纪70年代以来，德国东部的萨克森州地区因为褐煤资源枯竭造成大量的矿区废弃地。在东德时代这里曾经每年生产3亿t的褐煤，而常年的开采已对其辐射区域的地下水和地表径流造成了污染，并对矿区生态多样性造成了危害（图2）。由于地质构造特点，该区域许多地下水层因褐煤露天开采被切断或损害，加之开采产生的废水回流进入地下水以及汇入地表径流，造成了整个区域的水系污染。另外，露天开采导致大面积的裸露土壤和岩石，而这些“非生物环境”的恶性板块随着时间推移会逐渐蔓延直至引起整个区域的植被退化。上述环境问题，都需要在初期进行评估和检测。

此外，项目之初还需考虑组织机构与功能转换，而这牵涉到矿场所有权和利益协调问题。由于两德统一前后的政治体制变化导致修复责任主体划定比较复杂：该区域煤矿在东德时期完全国有，统一之后则分属周围几个州及其他不同利益群体[3]。谁来支付高额的修复费用？这需要建立一个协商谈判的组织架构（图3）。经过利益谈判和组织协商，多家相关利益群体最终达成了共同分担修复费用的协议。

该架构中的一个重要角色是“中部德国褐煤产业协会”（LMBV），其职责主要是协调各方利益，统筹修复和再利用的规划和进程。其主要任务有以下几点：1）做好前期的生态和地质评估；2）确定废弃的和不能再开采的矿区；3）评估修复矿区的生态效益；4）检测和治理矿区及其辐射范围内的水污染；5）恢复矿区裸露地表的植被；6）在区域规划的框架下，协调各方利益，形成矿区修复后的再利用决策机制。依托上述架构，LMBV通过协调各方利益，最终形成了一个由各个州政府牵头、由相关利益团体选举产生的联合办事机构[4]。该机构签订了《褐煤矿区改造项目共同纲领》文件，从而达成法律层面的共同体，并在具体事务上维护各方利益，共同推进矿区改造进程。

2 法律基础与规划流程

德国褐煤矿区的修复改造规划主要涉及3方面的法律法规（图4）：一是区域与空间规划法；二是能源政策；三是各类环境保护法。区域与空间规划法和能源政策共同决定了土地利用规划和修复规划；而环境保护法则决定修复规划在水体、植被、污染治理等方面的专项细则。这些法律条例通过监督矿业公司行为和收取相关税收来保证修复工作顺利开展，并通过公众参与和修复技术实现矿区生态补偿和环境效益平衡的目的[5]。

德国早在1980年就颁布了针对采矿区环境修复规划的相关法规。2005年的《区域规划法》对于褐煤矿区修复做了更为明确的规定，包括勘测地下水范围和开采其影响的区域、地表植被保护与恢复以及修复后再利用的土地性质和功能选择等。弗莱堡大学的Klapperich Wolf教授还总结了一套系统的规划研究流程（图5）。具体包括：1）问题评估与基础设施建设：建立环境监测点、评估站、交通系统、技术管理和建设管理机构；2）矿区环境修复：选取采样区进行修复技术评估（例如具体的水体净化与土壤修复），衡量矿产资源价值与环境价值以及环境检测机制；3）辐射区环境修复：与矿区基本相同；4）保护、恢复与复垦：建筑保护、植被恢复和生境再造等；5）功能转换：改造再利用的可能性讨论。

3 修复技术与自然过程

有研究指出，矿区修复的总体目标是通过实现自然保护、休闲观光与大地肌理恢复，把受损矿区修复为具有生机活力的生态环境和景观场地（图6）。具体操作内容包括林地荒地恢复与保育、农田牧场或山体风貌恢复以及水体污染治理等，最终可划定地域生态控制边界，并形成与区域大地肌理相融合的植被群落外貌与风景空间，以及经过处理的水体净化系统。

在政策法律保障、公众和企业环境意识觉醒以及精细化的检测和修复技术共同作用下，目前在德国矿区修复越来越受到人们的重视，其投入到“植被恢复”“污染场地治理”“水体治理”的费用也越来越高[6]。

3.1 水体恢复

水体修复需要首先对于矿区及其周边辐射区域的水体进行检测评估，然后根据检测评估结果开展有针对性的修复治理措施。诊断评估首先需要检测地表水和地下水是否具备好的生物与化学性状，是否有矿区的污染物进入到地表水或地下水中，然后判断其超标物质是否来自于矿区污染物，并对相应责任方实行“问责”。为了保证自然水体不受矿区废水污染，可以采取开挖废水净化渠和废水沉淀池的方式（图7）：从矿区内把采矿废水通过渠道输送到规划好的湖区对其进行净化处理，从而避免周边水体受到污染。

3 萨克森州褐煤矿区环境修复与改造项目的公共参与组织架构Organizational structure of public participation in environmental rehabilitation project of Saxony lignite region

4 德国的矿区环境修复法律与规划框架Legal and planning framework for Reclamation of mining areas in Germany

5 采矿区的生态修复研究流程Research procedure of mining areas’ ecological restoration

褐色水体是一种常见的水体污染问题，其危害包括妨碍沉水植物光合作用以及阻碍鱼类呼吸造成其缺氧窒息等。这是由于开采矿石遗留的废水未经处理排放造成的，其水体矿物质含量较多而有机质和氧气含量过少。治理措施包括修建废水沉淀池，布置充氧设施和培植水生动植物等。因此其河流尽量营造蜿蜒曲折的驳岸形式，以为两栖动物、爬行动物和昆虫等创造良好的滨水栖息地。

酸碱度失调是另一种常见的水体污染问题。如图8所示沉淀池里的硫酸盐严重超标，造成水体pH值严重偏酸性，而且含有一定的重金属盐。其应对措施包括：1）将干净的水注入其中，中和其酸碱度；2）利用化学方法使得硫酸盐钙化析出；3）利用水体净化装置，使得其中的重金属成分析出。针对具体措施，可以让各个领域的专家参与指导[7]。

6 生态修复的目标与3个层面的措施Purpose of ecological restoration and measures at three levels

7 萨克森州褐煤采矿区的采矿废水渠与沉淀池分布图Location of waste water purification ditch and settling tanks in Saxony region

8 萨克森州褐煤采矿区的沉淀池Waste water settling tanks in Saxony Region

3.2 植被恢复

植被恢复是矿区修复的重点问题。采矿活动往往产生大面积的裸露地表，不经过及时修复容易蔓延到更大区域。植被修复的面积往往比较大，也经常处理一些容易造成水土流失的斜坡地或岩石堆体。同时，矿区裸露地面的土壤酸碱度往往超标，因此首先需要进行土壤改良——即把不利于植被生长的土壤改良为适宜的土壤，然后选择适应性强的先锋树种和草本植物进行培育。

需要强调的是，植被恢复尽量避免单一结构的种植方式。所谓“单一种植结构”，就是单一树种，单一胸径，单一株行距。目前这在中国矿区修复中十分常见（图9），其生态成本巨大——抵御病虫害和恶劣环境侵袭的能力较弱，生态多样性很低，不能够形成丰富的生境环境类型。对此，植被栽植应遵循以下原则：1）选择地方性树种；2）植物群落和种群规划避免采用线性和方形阵列，有意留出空间间隙，提高生态多样性；3）速生慢生树种相互搭配，兼顾喜光与耐阴树种的搭配[8]。同时尽量采取自然演替的植被自我修复方式（图10）。许多废弃地先有野生植被对表层土壤形成固定作用，然后逐渐演替成为丰富的植被群落，当然这也往往需要一个长期过程。

除了考虑植物种类与群落结构多样性，植被恢复还注重建立动物自然栖息地（如小片水体或开阔旱地），并应考虑与邻近森林的生态联系（栖息地连接系统）。例如德国目前建议在正在运行的采矿区开辟出一片保护区不进行生产，以更好地丰富当地的生态多样性。

此外，对于改造为休闲娱乐花园的修复项目，可以引入多样的园林观赏植物。例如著名的埃姆舍公园改造项目中，设计师彼得 拉茨（Peter Latz）就有意保留废弃工矿场地内的网格状空间并种植了多种植物。此外还可以设置观光廊道开展科学普及，向人们揭示从草本到木本植物的演替过程，反映大自然总是在变化的真理。

3.3 土壤修复与水土保持

9 中国西北矿区单一结构的复垦植被栽植Unitary planting in the mining lands’ reclamation in northwest China

10 野生植物在废弃矿区的自然演替Natural succession of wild plants in abandoned mining areas

11 萨克森州进行土壤修复的矿区工地Construction site of soil restoration in Saxony region

褐煤矿区一般存在土壤腐蚀、水土流失、土壤酸碱化、腐殖质含量减少、透气性降低、土壤基层地质松动以及生物种类单一等问题。如果缺乏防止水土流失的有效措施，生态修复区便会在冲刷、风化、沙化作用下变成生态恶劣区域。对此，地表植被覆盖、梯田式种植带、修筑水土保持阻挡带以及木本植物固土栽培等措施都可以起到很好的水土保持作用（图11），控制土壤营养物质流失。用作复耕的土地还需要进行更加细致的改良。例如加入改良物质调节酸碱度，添加人工培育的腐殖质增强土壤肥力。复耕的土壤层厚度需要在2m以上，然后将腐殖质黄土混合的培养土铺在修复面上，厚度保持在20～50cm[8]。之后需要种植先锋植物，利用其根系固定土壤。

针对不同污染物类型可使用不同的修复方法：无机污染物（如重金属）可以通过表面活性剂或有机溶剂去除，也可以用高压提取或利用压缩气体（例如二氧化碳）作为萃取剂，以及通过植物进行富集吸收[7]；去除有机污染物（如矿物油和溶剂）的最常用方法是高温处理——在温度达到1 100℃的旋转炉里，有机物质挥发出来变成废气，再经过物理沉淀和生物吸收（例如苯、氯化烃等有毒物质）收集在过滤装置内[7]。

3.4 物种保护与生境修复

由于生态意识增强，目前德国的矿区修复实践目标早已从以农林复垦为主转向建立休闲用地、重构生物循环体和保护物种[9]。物种保护与生境修复目前在德国乃至欧洲矿区修复工作中扮演着越来越重要的角色。德国有大约2%的国土面积被列为荒地和保护濒危物种的场所，自然保护区和很多森林公园里设立有珍稀物种保护地。许多废弃矿区因长期无人干扰也往往成为各类野生动植物的栖息地，而这需要在修复规划中予以利用。

马德尔博士作为德国环境问题专家，在参与阿尔及利亚东北部EI Dough山区采石场生态修复项目中采取各种措施以增加其生物多样性。从法国殖民时代到今天，这片区域的大多数采石场未经人工修复和再利用。面对一处位于悬崖下面比较湿润的采石废弃地，研究人员选择合适地点利用天然黏土建造了一处小池塘作为山脉蝾（Pleurodeles poireti）等当地濒危物种的栖息地（图12），保证它们在合适的生命周期内在此产卵孵化。

此外，废弃采石场也可能为大型鸟类提供栖息地，例如猛禽类的秃鹰和山鹰栖居的崖壁还有嗜血蝙蝠居住的洞穴等。研究者会为崖壁和洞穴设计安装一些人工巢穴或简单固定的木板，从而为鸟类提供更多的生存环境。

其实，对于环境污染较少的采石场进行生态恢复，尤其面对较大区域的采石遗迹是不需要采取过多的人工修复措施的。采石岩石缝隙里本来已恢复有丰富的植被，它们可以进行自发的自然演替。例如在上述项目中，南安纳巴镇的一处采石场长期以来无人干预，目前已形成一个高度多样化的植被群落，诸如甘遂、岩杜松、夏黄连、西洋黄连、油橄榄以及圣栎等优势物种开始繁衍。这样丰富而多样化的植物群落栖息地，是人工难以创建的！

最后注意所有的“生态修复区”都需要采取适当的围栏防范措施，以防止野生动物（鹿或野猪等）侵袭脆弱的生态恢复区域。综上所述，根据每一个矿区特点，需要采取不同的生态修复技术。规划设计人员显然无法掌握每一种生态修复技术，但却应该在实践过程中不断学习，并让相关专业人员参与进来。毕竟规划师的使命就是协调与调动各方面专业人士与利益群体，使问题在一个有机协调的组织环境下得以解决。

12 小池塘的生态修复措施为采石场内的山脉蝾提供栖息地Restoration measure of small pond provides habitat for Pleurodeles poireti

13 多方参与的规划机制Planning mechanism of multi-participation

4 社会参与和功能转换

在德国，矿区生态修复的场地再利用往往建立在广泛的社会参与和讨论基础上。该讨论多基于以下几方面考虑：1）环境安全；2）经济效益和土地利用；3）风景空间与风貌的保护与塑造；4）自然保护。

参与讨论的社会群体一般包括以下几类：1）政府和代表公共利益的公益性团体，如自然保护人士和环境科学家等。环境安全和自然生态保护是他们的主要诉求，同时也包括提升矿区生活质量，促进人们接近自然，提高健康水平，丰富公众娱乐活动等。2）企业和开发商，更多从经济利益考虑，希望改造后的矿区可以盈利并具有再生产功能，例如作为复垦田、经济林、旅游区或者建造房屋租售等。3）文化学者和社会创新人士，诸如社会活动家、建筑师和风景园林师等则希望维持矿区特色风貌和保护风景资源，将其改造为满足市民休闲娱乐和科普教育需求的开放空间和遗址公园等。

上述不同参与群体需要在一个讨论框架下有组织有步骤地进行利益诉求和发展展望。这一讨论机制大致包括3个层面内容（图13）：1）控制性原则，明确修复之后需要达到的生态效益指标以及形成投入/产出的财务预判；2）项目组织与社会参与——政府、企业、社会团体与个人等相关利益方在公平的讨论机制下展开激烈争论，并最终得出相互妥协满意的结果，与此同时涉及区域利益协调的问题也会一并讨论；3）方案执行。经过讨论最终被确立的再利用规划被委托给具体的项目实施单位，并建立监督机制[10]。

5 结语

在德国，关于矿区改造的经典案例还有作为 IBA 项目的 Fürst Pückler Land、埃姆舍（Emscher Park） 以及Lausitz lake area项目等。每个项目都具有不同特色，需要进行特殊的规划与讨论，从而更好地协调环境保护、经济发展与社会公正等问题。由此可见，矿区生态修复和再利用是一个十分复杂的系统工程，它不仅需要专业的生态修复技术，更需要法律与制度层面的管理框架，以及保证社会参与和顺利运作的规划流程，此外还应该在大的区域背景下看待其修复与再利用。本文作者介绍的4个方面的工作内容较为完整地回应了上述问题，这对于实现矿区生态修复与合理再利用，促进区域可持续发展以及获得综合效益最大化具有重要意义。

注释(Notes)：

①图1来源：Hajo Mader，2009；图2改绘自：Surface Mining， 2003；图3改绘自：LMBV，2006；图4改绘自：Vattenfall，2006；图 5改绘自：TU Freiburg，Klapperich Wolf，2002；图6改绘自：Vattenfall，2006；图7来源：Vattenfall，2006； 图 8、9、11、12来 源：Hajo Mader；图10来源：孔洞一；图13来源：LMBV，2006。

Fig. 1 source: HajoMader, 2009; Fig. 2 source: Surface Mining, 2003; Fig. 3 source: LMBV, 2006; Fig. 4 source:Vattenfall, 2006; Fig. 5 source: TU Freiburg, Klapperich Wolf, 2002; Fig. 6 source: Vattenfall, 2006; Fig. 7 source:Vattenfall, 2006; Fig. 8/9/11/12 source: Hajo Mader; Fig. 10 source: Kong Dongyi; Fig. 13 source: LMBV, 2006.

[1]Presse-und Iformationsamt der Bundesregierung(2016):Deutsche Nachhaltigkeits strategie — Neuauflage, Berlin.

[2]Umweltbundesamt(2015): Immer weniger fruchtbare und gesunde Böden, Berlin.

[3]Adel, J.Y. (2009): Integrated quarry rehabilitation strategy for sustainable renaturation in Lebanon; Dissertation,Humboldt Universität, Berlin.

[4]Jeremy BIGGS (2008): 3rd European Pond Conservation Network Workshop, València.

[5]Zuordnungswerte (2013): Deponieverordnung,Niedersächsische Gesellschaftzur Endablagerung von Sonderabfall, Hannover.

[6]BBodSchV(1999): Bundes-Bodenschutz- und Altlastenverordnung, (BGBl. I S. 1554), Berlin.

[7]Ulrich Wöstmann(2016): Natürliche Selbstreinigung und Immobilisierung bei schädlichen Bodenveränderungen und Altlasten.

[8]Hermann Remmert(1991): Das Mosaik-Zyklus-Konzept und seine Bedeutungfür den Naturschutz, Laufen/ Salzach.

[9]梁留科，常江，吴次芳，Klaus Borchard. 德国煤矿区景观生态重建、土地复垦及对中国的启示[J]. 经济地理，2002，22（6）：711-715.

Liang Liuke, Chang Jiang, Wu Cifang, Klaus Borchard.Study on the Ecological Restoration of Landscape in Germany Mining Regions and Reference to China[J].Economic Geography, 2002, 22(6): 711-715.

[10]Frank Sander(2013): Sanierung von Bergbaufolgen Landschaft der Braukohle in Sachsen, Leipzig.

Along with the growing population and the improving living standard in the world, resource on consumption is increasingly larger. Most of such resources are concealed in the earth surface layer,providing energy for growth of animals and plants as well as playing an important role in absorption of carbondioxide and supply of oxygen.Though these resources provide basic conditions for human survival, most people have no awareness of the property of earth surface, just as sensitive as our skin; the earth surface is a highly complex ecosystem composed of various inorganics, soil,water, microorganism, animals and plants, etc.

In Germany, 66ha-land is turning into residential or transportation land everyday, leading to serious loss of natural resources[1]. By 2030,this fi gure will be reduced to 30ha., but there still will be plenty of land being occupied. It seems that people have been used to willfully using land,especially mineral resources, as hands-down free resources - over the past 200 years, exploitation of lignite in Germany, the mining area in historical colonial as well as the centralized excavation in the fast developing China have caused large-area of earth surface demanding urgent reclamation (Figure 1).

"Reclamation" refers to the productive capacity of restoring available cultivated land or pasture land in its original meaning, but now it lays more emphases on making the land restore to natural conservation and self-reliant living state. People also gradually realize that each harm to "earthskin"must be slowly cured through a treatment process; human intervention and reasonable process planning shall also be considered for the reclamation process and exploitation and reuse.Germany has accumulated abundant experience in mining area restoration and transformation,particularly in the successful reclamation of lignite mining area in original East Germany and the transformation project of industrial heritage in Ruhr[2]. By borrowing ideas from the operation mode of restoration and transformation practice of mining area in Germany, this paper will address its main planning process and work contents from the following four aspects by combining speci fi c cases,with a hope of bringing some enlightenment to the ecological reclamation, transformation and reuse practices of current mining area in China. Works on such aspects include: problem assessment and institutional arrangement; legal basis and planned process; reclamation technology and natural process;social participation and functional conversion.

1 Problem assessment and institutional arrangement

As for the reclamation and transformation of abandoned mining area, i.e., a large-scale long-lasting and costly project with large land occupation, the environmental problem in mining area shall be firstly assessed during actual operation; meanwhile, management problems,such as system design and organization structuring,shall be considered. Particularly, in the area with changed land ownership and complex stakeholders,parties concerned shall be organized to negotiate and establish a cooperation platform so as to form specific management organization; moreover,reasonable financing channel, benefit distribution mode, etc. shall be designed.

Since the 1970s, a mass of abandoned mining areas appear in Saxony region in east of Germany due to the exhaustion of lignite resource. In East Germany era, this region produced 3mt lignite every year, whereas the all-year-round exploitation had polluted the underground water and surface runoff in its radiating area and endangered the ecological diversity in mining area (Figure 2).Due to the characteristics of geological structure,many underground aquifers in this region have been cut off or damaged; in addition, the waste water generated by exploitation back flows into underground water and converges into surface runoff, thus causing water system pollution of the whole region. Moreover, opencast working had resulted in large-area of bare soil and rock, and such "abiotic environment" pernicious plate would gradually extend over time until causing vegetation degradation of the whole region. All environmental problems, as mentioned above, shall be assessed and detected at the beginning.

In addition, organization structuring and functional conversion, which also involves the mine field ownership and interest coordination problem, shall also be considered at the beginning of project. The change of political system before and after the German reunification makes the demarcation of reclamation responsibility subjects more complicated: the coal mine in this region was completely state-owned in East Germany period,but belongs to several states and other different interest groups after reunification[3]. Who is hold responsible for the high reclamation expense? To answer this question, a negotiation organization structure shall be established (Figure 3). After interest negotiation and organization collaboration,many interest-related groups finally reach an agreement on jointly sharing reclamation expense.

"LMBV" is a key part in this structure, mainly responsible for coordinating the interests of parties concerned and comprehensively planning the reclamation and reuse plan and progress. Its main tasks are as follows: 1) properly make early ecological and geological assessment; 2) determine the abandoned mining area and that no longer for exploitation; 3) assess the ecological benefit of restored mining area; 4) detect and control water pollution in mining area and its radiating range; 5) restore the vegetation of the bare earth surface in mining area; 6) coordinate the interests of parties concerned in regional planning frame,and form the reuse decision mechanism of mining area after reclamation. Supported by the abovementioned structure, LMVB has finally formed a joint administrative organization[4]led by state governments and elected by interest-related groups through coordinating the interests of parties concerned. This organization has signed "Common Program for Transformation Project in Lignite Mining Area", thus forming a community in legal sense, which protects interests of respective party and jointly promotes the transformation progress in mining area.

2 Legal basis and planned process

The reclamation and transformation planning for lignite mining area in Germany mainly involves laws and regulations on the following three aspects (Figure 4): 1) regional and spatial planning methods; 2) energy policies; 3) various environmental protection laws. Regional and spatial planning method and energy policies codetermine the land use planning and reclamation planning,whereas environmental protection laws determine the special rules of reclamation planning on aspects such as water, vegetation and pollution treatment.Such legal regulations guarantee the smooth implementation of reclamation work through supervising the behaviors of mining companies and collecting relevant taxes; they also realizes the balance between ecological compensation and environmental benefits of miningarea by public participation and reclamation technology[5].

Germany has issued relevant laws and regulations in allusion to environmental reclamation planning of mining area as early as in 1980. The "Regional Planning Law" in 2005 makes the reclamation provisions of lignite mining area more specific,including survey of underground water range and area affected by exploitation, earth surface vegetation protection and restoration, nature and function selection of reused land after reclamation,etc. Klapperich Wolf, Professor from University of Freiburg, has summarized a set of systematic planning research process (Figure 5), specifically including: 1) problem assessment and infrastructure construction: establish environment monitoring point, assessment station, transportation system, technical management and construction management organization; 2) environmental reclamation of mining area: select sampling area to make reclamation technology assessment (e.g.specific water purification and soil reclamation),measure mineral resource value, environmental value and environmental detection mechanism;3) environmental reclamation of radiating area:basically same as that of mining area; 4) protection,restoration and reclamation: building protection,vegetation restoration and habitat recreation;5) functional conversion: discussion on possibility of transformation and reuse.

3 Reclamation technology and natural process

Some study has pointed out that the overall objective of mining area reclamation is to turn the damaged mining area into a site with animate ecological environment and landscape through realizing natural conservation, leisure &sightseeing and earth texture restoration (Figure 6). Its operation contents include forest land and wasteland restoration and conservation, farmland,pasture land or mountain style restoration, water pollution control, etc.; and it may finally delimit the regional ecological control boundary as well as form the vegetation appearance and scenery space consistent with regional earth texture and the processed water puri fi cation system.

Under the joint effect of policy and legal guarantee, environmental awareness awakening among the public and enterprises as well as re fi ned detection and reclamation technologies, at present,mining area reclamation in Germany receives more and more attentions, and its investment in"vegetation restoration", "polluted site treatment"and "water treatment" becomes higher and higher[6].3.1 Water restoration

As for water restoration, firstly, the water in mining area and its surrounding radiating area shall be detected and assessed; then targeted reclamation treatment measures shall be taken according to the detection and assessment result. During diagnostic assessment, whether the surface water and underground water are provided with favorable biological and chemical properties and whether there is any mining area pollutant entering into surface water or underground water shall be fi rstly detected; then whether the substance exceeding the limit comes from mining area pollutant shall be judged; "accountability" for corresponding responsible party shall be implemented. Waste water purification ditch and waste water settling tank may be excavated to protect natural water from pollution by mining area waste water (Figure 7): transmit the mining wastewater in mining area through ditch to the planned lake area for purification treatment, thereby avoiding pollution of surrounding water.

Brown water is a common water pollution problem which disturbs the photosynthesis of submerged plant and causes oxygen deficit and even suffocation of fi sh stocks by impeding their respiration. The reason is that the residual waste water caused by ore exploitation, which contains many minerals but insufficient organic matter and oxygen, is discharged without treatment.Treatment measures include construction of waste water settling tank, arrangement of oxygenation facilities, cultivation of aquatic animals and plants,etc. Therefore, the river shall be twisted as possible so as to create a favorable waterfront habitat for amphibians, reptiles, insects, etc.

Disordered pH value is another common water pollution problem. As shown in Figure 8, the sulfate in settling tank severely exceeds the limit, causing severe acidity of water pH value and the existence of certain heavy metallic salt. Response measures are as follows: 1) inject clean water to neutralize its pH value; 2) calcify and separate sulfate with chemical method; 3) separate the heavy metal composition by water purification device.Experts from various fields may provide guidance in allusion to specific measure[7].

3.2 Vegetation restoration

Vegetation restoration is the key issue of mining area reclamation. Mining activity always generates large-area bare earth surface, which is easily extended without timely reclamation.Therefore, the area of vegetation reclamation is relatively large, and there may be many slopes or rock piles liable to water and soil loss. Meanwhile,the pH value of soil in bare ground always exceeds the limit; therefore, the soil shall be improved fi rstly- i.e. improve the soil adverse to vegetation growth into proper soil, and then select adaptable pioneer tree species and herbaceous plant for cultivation.

To be emphasized, single-structure planting pattern shall be avoided as mush as possible during vegetation restoration. The so-called "unitary planting structure" means single tree species, single diameter at breast height and single planting space(Figure 9). This is common in the current mining area reclamation in China. Its ecological cost is enormous - the capability of resisting diseases and insect pests and severe environment attack is weak, the ecological diversity is too poor to form abundant habitat types. On the contrary, vegetation planting shall comply with the following principles:1) select endemic tree species; 2) avoid linear and square array when planning plant community and species group and intentionally reserve clearance to improve ecological diversity; 3) mutually collocate fast-growing and slow-growing tree species as well as heliophilous and shade-tolerant tree species[8].Meanwhile, self-reclamation of vegetation by natural succession shall be adopted (Figure 10).In many abandoned lands, wild vegetation comes fi rst to immobilize the surface soil, then it gradually becomes abundant vegetation types. Certainly, this is a long-term process.

In addition to the diversity of vegetation types and group structures, attention shall also be paid to establishing natural habitat for animals (e.g. small waters or open dry lands) and considering the ecological relationship with adjacent forest (habitat connection system) during vegetation restoration.For example, Germany suggests to set out a protection area for no production in the mining area under operation. Relative to the over insolation and poor nutrition in mining area, such protection area will preferably enrich the local ecological diversity.

In addition, various garden ornamental plants may be introduced in the reclamation project transformed into leisure & entertainment garden. For example, during the famous Emscher Park Transformation Project, Peter Latz, the Designer, has intentionally reserved the go-space in abandoned mining field and planted various plants. Moreover, sightseeing corridor may also be arranged to carry out scienti fi c popularization,revealing the succession process from herbaceous plant to ligneous plant and re fl ecting the truth of the changing nature to people.

3.3 Soil reclamation and water and soil conservation

Generally, problems such as soil corrosion,water and soil loss, soil acidi fi cation and alkalization,humus reduction, permeability loss, geological looseness of soil base course and single biological species exist in lignite mining area. If effective measures for preventing soil and water loss are unavailable, the ecological reclamation area will become ecological deterioration area under the action of scouring, weathering and deserti fi cation.In allusion to this problem, measures such as earth surface vegetation coverage, terrace-type planting belt, construction of water and soil conservation barrier strip and ligneous plant cultivation for soil fixation can play an important role in water and soil conservation (Figure 11) and controlling the loss of soil nutrient. The land used for secondary ploughing shall be improved more carefully, e.g. add ameliorants to adjust pH value, and add arti fi ciallycultivated humus to enhance soil fertility. The thickness of soil layer under secondary ploughing shall be 2m above, then spread a layer of humusloess cultivation soil(with thickness of 20～50cm)on the restored surface. Then pioneer plants shall be planted to fi x the soil by their root system.

Different reclamation methods may be adopted in allusion to different pollutant types:inorganic pollutant (e.g. heavy metal) may be removed by surfactant or organic solvent; it may also be extracted under high pressure or with compressed gas (e.g. carbon dioxide) as extracting agent, or absorbed through concentration by plants; high-temperature processing is the most common method for organic pollutant (e.g. mineral oil and solvent): organic substance volatilizes into waste gas in the revolving furnace with temperature of 1 100ºC, and then is absorbed into filter device after physical sedimentation and biological absorption (e.g. toxic substances such as benzene and chlorinated hydrocarbon)[7].

3.4 Species protection and habitat reclamation

As a result of the enhancement of ecological consciousness, the goal of the German mining restoration has been changed from the agriculture& forestry reclamation to the establishment of leisure land, reconstructing the biological cycles and protecting the species[9]. Species protection and habitat reclamation play a more and more important role in mining area reclamation in current Germany or even in Europe. At present,2% of Germany territory is labeled as wasteland and location for protection of endangered species,and rare species protection areas are established in nature conservation areas and many forest parks. Many abandoned mining areas have become habitats for various wild animals and plants since they are free of interference for a long term, and they shall be utilized in reclamation planning.

Dr. Mader, as a German environmentalist,has taken various measures to increase biological diversity when participating in the ecological reclamation project of quarry in EI Dough mountain area in northeast Algeria. From the France colonization era up totoday, most quarrys in this region have received no arti fi cial reclamation and reuse. As for the wet abandoned quarry under precipice, researchers have selected a proper place to construct a small water pond with natural clay to serve as a habitat for local endangered species such as pleurodeles poireti (Figure 12), so as to ensure their oviposition and incubation in appropriate life cycle.

Moreover, abandoned quarry may also serve as habitat for large birds, such as precipice for raptorial bald eagle and mountain eagle as well as cave for vampire bats. Researcher can design and install some artificial nests, caves or simply fixed wood plates to provide more abundant living environment for birds.

Actually, the ecological restoration for quarry with little environmental pollution, especially the large-area quarrying relic, doesn't need excessive arti fi cial reclamation measures. There is abundant vegetation in rock gaps in quarry, and it may take on natural succession. Take the above-mentioned project as example, a quarry in South Annaba has been free of human intervention for a long period,and now it has formed highly diversi fi ed vegetation types. Dominant species, such as euphorbiakansui,rock juniper, summer coptischinensis, western coptischinensis, olive and holmoak, starts multiplying. Such abundant and diversified plant community habitat is far from human could create!

Finally, attention shall be paid that proper fence prevention measures shall be taken for all"ecological reclamation areas" so as to prevent wild animals (deer or boar, etc.) from attacking the frangible ecological restoration areas. In conclusion, different ecological reclamation technology is adopted for each mining area according to its characteristics. It is obvious that planning and design personnel cannot master all ecological reclamation technologies, but they shall keep learning and mobilize relevant professional personnel in practice. After all, the planner's mission is to coordinate and mobilize various professional knowledge and interest groups so as to settle the problem in an organic and harmonious organizational environment.

4 Social participation and functional conversion

In Germany, reuse of ecological reclamation field in mining area is always based on extensive social participation and discussion. Usually, the discussion will address the following aspects:1) environmental safety; 2) economic bene fi t and land use; 3) protection and shaping of scenery space and style; 4) natural conservation.

Generally, social groups participating in discussion include: 1) government and public interest groups, such as nature protectors,environmental scientist, etc. They mainly appeal for environmental safety and natural ecological protection, and also for improving life quality in mining area, facilitating human's closeness to nature, improving health level, enriching public amusement, etc.; 2) enterprises and developers,who consider more from perspective of economic benefits, hoping that the transformed mining area may profit and have reproduction function, e.g.used as reclamation farmland, economic forest,tourism area or for construction of buildings for renting, etc. 3) cultural scholars and social innovators such as social activists, architects and landscape architects, they hope to maintain the characteristic style of mining area, protect the landscape resource, and transform it into an open space and relic park satisfying the leisure,entertainment and science popularization education demand of citizens.

The above-mentioned different participating groups shall make interest appeal and development prospect in an organized and step-by-step way within a discussion frame. Such discussion mechanism approximately includes three levels(Figure 13): 1) control principle: define the ecological benefit index to be reached after reclamation and form the fi nancial pre-judgement of input/output; 2) project organization and social participation—interest-related parties, such as governments, enterprises, social groups and individuals, are engaged in a heated argument in the fair discussion mechanism, and finally obtain a mutually compromised satisfactory result; meanwhile, issues involving the regional interest coordination are also discussed; 3) scheme implementation: the reuse planning finally determined through discussion is entrusted to specific project implementation organization, and supervision mechanism shall be established[10].

5 Epilogue

In Germany, classic cases of mining area transformation also include IBA projects, i.e. Fürst Pückler Land, Emscher Park, Lausitz lake area project, etc. Each project has its own characteristics and requires special planning and discussion,thereby coordinating the environmental protection,economic development and social justice issues in a better way. It shows that ecological reclamation and reuse of mining area is a very complex system project, it not only requires professional ecological reclamation technology, but also asks for law and system management frame as well as the planned process ensuring social participation and smooth operation; moreover, reclamation and reuse shall also be considered under the general regional background. This paper introduces work contents in four aspects, comprehensively responding to the above problems, and it has great significance on realizing the ecological reclamation and reasonable reuse of mining area, facilitating regional sustainable development and obtaining maximum comprehensive benefits.

Curing the Earth Surface Skin — Theories and Practices of Ecological Restoration and Reclamation of Mining Areas in Germany

(Germany) Hans-Joachim Mader, KONG Dong-yi, CUI Qing-wei＊

In the background of resource crisis and global urbanization process nowadays, the mining lands are just like the scars of earth skin and need careful curing by human beings. As one of the most developed industrial capitalist country in the world, Germany has accumulated rich experience in the field of restoration and regeneration of mining areas, and has made remarkable achievements. This paper introduces some general ideas and operating methods of mining lands’ ecological restoration and reclamation practices in Germany, in hope of providing some references in the managing, planning, designing and engineering practices in China.Based on the main procedure and working content, this paper will introduce the following four aspects: problems assessment& institutional arrangement, legal basis &planning procedure, reclaiming technologies & natural process, social participation & function conversion.

Germany; planning procedure; reclamation technology; social participation; reuse

北京林业大学科技创新计划——2015新进教师科研启动基金项目（编号BLX2015-35）；北京市共建项目专项资助

TU 986

A

1673-1530(2017)08-0030-11

10.14085/j.fjyl.2017.08.0030.11

2017-06-11

修回日期：2017-07-11

Fund Items:Beijing Forestry University Science & Technology Innovation Plan-2015 New Teacher’s Research Start-up Fund Project (No. BLX2015-35); Beijing Joint Construction Special Project Co-finance

（德）汉斯-约阿希姆 马德尔/1944年生/男/海德堡大学生物学博士，生态学家，环境评论家/ 勃兰登堡州环境部空间规划及自然保护局前局长，勃兰登堡州自然保护基金会前主席，国际退休专家委员会“环境高级顾问”

(Germany) Hans-Joachim Mader, who was born in 1944,is doctor of biology at the University of Heidelberg, and an ecologist, environmental commentator. He is former director of Department of Spatial Planning & Natural Protection in Brandenburg Ministry of Environment, former chairmanof Brandenburg State Conservation Foundation, senior advisor of the International Rescue Expert Committee (SES).

孔洞一/1981年生/男/河南洛阳人/德国魏玛包豪斯大学城市化研究在读博士研究生，“风景园林新青年”网站主编/研究方向为文化景观

KONG Dong-yi, who was born in 1981 in Luoyang, Henan province, is a Ph.D. candidate of urbanization studies at Bauhaus University Weimar, main-editor of “Youth Landscape Architecture” NPO Organization. His research focuses on cultural landscape.

崔庆伟/1985年生/男/山东东明人/博士/北京林业大学园林学院讲师/研究方向为矿业景观与风景园林规划设计理论（北京100083）

邮箱（Corresponding author Email）：qingweicui@bjfu.edu.cn

CUI Qing-wei, who was born in 1985 in Dongming, Shandong province, holding doctor degree, is an assistant professor in the School of Landscape Architecture, Beijing Forestry University. His research focuses on mining landscape and landscape architectural planning and design theory (Beijing 100083).

（编辑 / 任京燕）