杨 卿,颜春松
·新进展·
急性呼吸窘迫综合征异质性的研究进展
杨 卿,颜春松*
急性呼吸窘迫综合征是一种异质性综合征,在病因、发病机制、临床表现、治疗、预后等方面存在差异,根据这些差异可将其分为不同表型,以指导临床治疗和判断预后。本文旨在对急性呼吸窘迫综合征的异质性及表型的研究进展进行综述。
呼吸窘迫综合征,成人;异质性;表型
杨卿,颜春松.急性呼吸窘迫综合征异质性的研究进展[J].中国全科医学,2017,20(13):1648-1653.[www.chinagp.net]
YANG Q,YAN C S.Research progress on heterogeneity of acute respiratory distress syndrome[J].Chinese General Practice,2017,20(13):1648-1653.
1967年ASHBAUGH等[1]首次观察到在272例接受呼吸支持的成年患者中有12例患者对常规治疗无效,其均出现一种呼吸窘迫综合征,临床表现为呼吸困难、呼吸急促、发绀,且对氧疗无效,肺顺应性下降,胸部X线片提示弥漫性肺泡渗出。这种呼吸窘迫综合征的临床表现、生理及病理进程均与新生儿呼吸窘迫综合征(透明膜病)极其相似,且均在原发病后1~96 h出现,故将其称为成人急性呼吸窘迫(acute respiratory distress in adults)。1971年PETTY等[2]将这种呼吸窘迫综合征命名为成人呼吸窘迫综合征(adult respiratory distress syndrome,ARDS)。1985年ARDS的病死率仍高达60%以上[3],为明确其定义、更好地理解其发病机制并评估治疗,1988年MURRAY等[4]提出了肺损伤评分,但之后ARDS的病死率仍为10%~90%,波动较大。1994年美欧联席会议(AECC)提出了急性肺损伤(ALI)/ARDS的定义和诊断标准,并将成人呼吸窘迫综合征更名为急性呼吸窘迫综合征(acute respiratory distress syndrome,ARDS),指出ALI是一种炎性反应和肺通透性增高的综合征,这种通透性增高不能用左心房和/或肺毛细血管高压解释,而ARDS是ALI的严重阶段[5]。同时,该会议认为ARDS的异质性也是影响患者预后的因素之一[5]。但广泛应用结果显示,与弥漫性肺泡损伤的尸检病理结果相比,AECC的诊断标准仅有中等灵敏度和特异度[6],且诊断准确性也并不高[7-8]。因此,2011年在欧洲重症医学学会的倡议下,美国胸科学会和重症医学学会共同参与修订了新的诊断标准——ARDS柏林标准[9]。虽然ARDS的诊断和治疗取得了长足进展,但其死亡率仍高达38.1%~42.1%,尤其是重度ARDS的院内病死率高达41.9%~50.4%[10]。重要原因之一就是其病因、发病机制错综复杂,临床表现、治疗、预后等诸多方面存在差异,具有异质性。根据ARDS的异质性可将其分为不同表型,本文旨在对其异质性及表型的研究进展进行综述,以期为更好地理解ARDS的发病机制、提高临床治疗水平提供新思路。
1998年GATTINONI等[11]发现,肺部感染与腹部疾病导致的ARDS病理改变和对呼气末正压通气(PEEP)的治疗反应并不相同,并根据这一现象将ARDS分为由肺部疾病所致的肺内源性ARDS(primarily from pulmonary diseases,ARDSp)和肺外疾病所致的肺外源性ARDS(primarily from extra-pulmonary diseases,ARDSexp)。进一步的研究发现,ARDSp和ARDSexp在发病机制、病理及临床表现等方面存在一定差异。
1.1 病理表现 ARDSexp的内皮损伤可能更明显,而肺上皮细胞相对完整,透明膜较薄且均匀连续分布[12];ARDSp的上皮损伤、肺泡塌陷、纤维蛋白沉积较明显[13],透明膜较厚且易中断[12]。ARDS动物模型也提示,ARDSp造成肺上皮细胞层破坏、透明膜形成及中性粒细胞凋亡,ARDSexp则以肺间质水肿为主、肺泡腔结构相对完整[14];ARDSp肺泡内胶原蛋白持续增加可达8周,但ARDSexp胶原蛋白沉积可被迅速逆转[15]。这可能是PEEP对ARDSp的治疗效果不如ARDSexp的病理基础。
1.2 影像学表现 在胸部影像学表现上,二者间也存在差异。胸部CT检查提示,ARDSp的磨玻璃影与肺实变范围相当,且肺实变不对称;ARDSexp的双肺磨玻璃影较肺实变更加明显,且磨玻璃影对称,多分布在近肺门的中央区[16]。二者普遍存在胸腔积液、支气管充气征。但DESAI等[17]指出,虽然二者的CT表现存在差异,但在某些情况下对ARDSp胸部CT检查的识别主要基于其表现是否典型,而不是基于某个影像学特征。
1.3 呼吸力学及治疗反应 二者在呼吸力学及治疗反应方面也存在差异。GATTINONI等[11]通过研究发现,ARDSp患者肺弹性阻力升高,并随PEEP的增加而增加;而ARDSexp患者肺和胸壁弹性阻力均升高,并随PEEP的增加而减小。LIM等[18]和PELOSI等[19]的研究结果表明,PEEP对ARDSexp的治疗效果优于ARDSp,推测二者对PEEP的不同反应可能是因为ARDSexp主要表现为肺泡萎陷(肺泡易于复张),而ARDSp则主要表现为肺实变(肺泡不易于复张)。LIM等[18]在对47例ARDS患者(31例ARDSp、16例ARDSexp)采用俯卧位通气方式治疗时,发现ARDSexp患者的氧合指数和胸部X线片的改善明显优于ARDSp患者,这与PELOSI等[19]的研究结果一致。导致二者差异的原因可能为:ARDSexp的主要改变是肺萎陷和不张导致的低氧血症,俯卧位通气有助于肺内通气的重新分布和局部经肺压的改变,这均会对改善氧合指数起到迅速而积极的作用;ARDSp以肺实变为主,俯卧位通气对肺内气体重新分布所起的作用较小[20]。
1.4 患者死亡率 多项研究结果显示,ARDSp的死亡率高于ARDSexp[21-23]。但2008年一项纳入了34个研究共4 311例ARDS患者的meta分析结果显示,二者病死率间无差异,这可能是因为分析过程中将各研究间的异质性及诸多重要研究均排除在外所致[24]。
1.5 生物标志物 二者的生物学标志物可能也存在差异。CALFEE等[25]的研究结果显示,ARDSp患者的血浆肺上皮细胞损伤标志物肺表面活性物质相关蛋白-D(SP-D)的水平明显高于ARDSexp患者,而内皮细胞损伤标志物血管生成素-2(Ang-2)、血管性血友病因子(vWF)抗原和炎性标志物白介素6(IL-6)、白介素8(IL-8)明显低于ARDSexp患者。提示ARDSp早期可能以肺泡上皮细胞损伤为主,而ARDSexp早期可能以血管内皮细胞损伤为主。这可能为ARDS的治疗提供了新思路,如ARDSexp早期可以保护毛细血管内皮细胞为主,血管生成素-1(Ang-1)的变异体(MAT.Ang-1)、酪氨酸激酶受体2(Tie-2)的激动剂、1-磷脂-鞘氨醇及其类似物等可减轻毛细血管渗漏,保护内皮屏障[26-29];而ARDSp早期可以保护肺泡上皮细胞为主,研究表明18∶1/18∶1二油酰磷脂酰甘油和角化细胞生长因子可保护肺泡上皮细胞,减轻肺损伤的肺水肿表现[30-31]。
1.6 遗传学表现 另外,ARDSp和ARDSexp的发生与遗传学也存在一定关系。研究发现,单核苷酸多态性rs1190286(POPDC3基因)、肿瘤坏死因子的-308A等位基因可能会降低肺部疾病发展成为ARDS的风险[32];肿瘤坏死因子的TNFB22等位基因可能降低肺外疾病发展成为ARDS的风险[33],而单核苷酸多态性rs324420 (FAAT基因)可能增加肺外疾病发展成为ARDS的风险[32]。
2007年CALFEE等[34]纳入了2个临床试验研究共1 451例ARDS患者,根据ARDS的病因将其分为创伤相关性ARDS(主要病因为创伤)与非创伤相关性ARDS(主要病因为非创伤)两组,结果显示创伤相关性ARDS患者更加年轻、急慢性疾病更少,血浆中反映肺上皮细胞和内皮细胞损伤的标志物可溶性细胞黏附分子-1(sICAM-1)、vWF、SP-D、可溶性肿瘤坏死因子受体-1(TNFr-1)水平更低,90 d死亡率更低,与之前诸多研究结果相同[35-40]。该研究还显示,创伤相关性ARDS患者的死亡率低,并不足以用其基础临床差异来解释,可能由其肺上皮、内皮细胞损伤较轻引起。近年来人们对创伤后发生ARDS的危险因素进行了深入研究,发现PPFIA1基因[41]、血清低水平的内皮细胞特异分子-1[42]、主动与被动吸烟[43]等与创伤相关性ARDS发生有一定关系。
REILLY等[44]进一步对创伤相关性ARDS进行了潜类别分析,发现早发型ARDS(创伤后48 h内发生)患者与晚发型ARDS(创伤后48 h后发生)患者相比,胸部创伤更严重、入住重症监护室(ICU)前最低收缩压更低,且早发型ARDS患者血浆Ang-2、可溶性晚期糖基化终末产物受体(sRAGE)水平较晚发型高,提示早发型ARDS患者肺泡-毛细血管屏障的损伤可能更严重[45-46],但两类患者的院内病死率并无差异。这种早发型ARDS患者更适于以糖基化终末产物受体(RAGE)和Ang-2为靶点的治疗方案。RAGE是一种多配体受体,属于细胞表面分子免疫球蛋白超家族,其能与多种配体(如晚期糖基化产物、淀粉样肽、高迁移率族蛋白)结合,参与炎性反应和固有免疫反应。既往研究结果显示,阻断RAGE轴可以减轻炎性反应程度,提高脓毒症小鼠的生存率[47]。Ang-2是一种内皮细胞生长因子,主要表达于血管内皮细胞,可识别Tie-2。静息状态下血管内皮细胞的Ang-2表达量较少,当内皮细胞活化时其表达上调,拮抗Ang-1与Tie-2结合所致的稳定内皮细胞的作用,导致内皮细胞凋亡和血管渗漏。研究表明,以核酸适体或封闭抗体抑制Ang-2,阻断其与Tie-2结合,可发挥抗感染效应、减轻血管渗漏[48],这同样为ARDS的临床治疗提供了新思路。
2010年SHEU等[49]纳入2 786例可能发展为ARDS的患者,其中736例最终发生了ARDS,将由脓毒症引起的ARDS归为脓毒症相关性ARDS(524例),将由非脓毒症损伤(如创伤、误吸、多次输血)造成的ARDS归为非脓毒症相关性ARDS(62例),将同时有脓毒症及创伤、误吸、多次输血等危险因素的患者排除在外。该研究发现,脓毒症相关性ARDS患者的病情更加严重、肺损伤恢复更差、成功拔管率更低、60 d病死率更高。分析其原因,脓毒症相关性ARDS患者的血浆降钙素原(PCT)、vWF抗原、sICAM-1、可溶性E选择素水平较非脓毒症相关性ARDS患者更高,提示前者的急性炎性反应、内皮细胞活性、凝血激活程度更高。
循环内皮细胞是内皮细胞破坏的标志物[50-51]。MOUSSA等[52]的研究结果显示,中重度脓毒症相关性ARDS患者循环内皮细胞(CEC)计数高于轻度脓毒症相关性ARDS患者,死亡患者的CEC计数高于存活者,提示内皮细胞破坏在脓毒症相关性ARDS的发病中可能起重要作用,可能是其严重程度的标志物。A型血[53]、中性粒细胞相关基因的过表达[54]可能是脓毒症相关性ARDS发生的危险因素。既往研究结果表明,骨髓间充质干细胞可发挥抗感染和抗凋亡效应、调节上皮细胞和内皮细胞通透性、改善肺水清除等,进而减轻脓毒症和ARDS中的肺损伤,增强肺修复[55]。
3-羟基-3-甲基戊二酸单酰辅酶A(HMG-CoA)还原酶抑制剂(他汀类)药物除抗感染、免疫调节、抗氧化等作用外,还具有促进内皮细胞骨架重排、减轻氧化应激等作用。动物实验证实,他汀类药物可减轻呼吸机相关性肺损伤和内毒素所致的肺损伤中的血管渗漏[56-57]。虽然也有研究结果显示,瑞舒伐他汀对脓毒症相关性ARDS患者的60 d院内生存率、机械通气时间无明显改善[58]。但MANSUR等[59]进一步将脓毒症相关性ARDS的严重程度进行分级,发现在白种人中辛伐他汀预处理及连续治疗可以改善重度脓毒症相关性ARDS患者的28 d生存率,对预后有益。
2014年CALFEE等[60]纳入2个相互独立的随机对照试验(ARMA研究的473例和ALVEOLI研究的549例ARDS患者),潜类别分析提示,将ARDS分为非超炎型、超炎型2个亚型为最优拟合。超炎型ARDS为具有相对高血浆水平的IL-6、IL-8、TNFr-1、纤溶酶原激活物抑制因子-1(PAI-1)及相对较快的心率和较大1 min通气量,相对低的收缩压、碳酸氢根离子及C反应蛋白水平的ARDS。非超炎型ARDS为具有相对低血浆水平的IL-6、IL-8、TNFr-1、PAI-1及相对较慢的心率和较小的1 min通气量,相对高的收缩压、碳酸氢根离子及C反应蛋白水平的ARDS。超炎型患者与非超炎型相比其血浆炎性反应标志物水平更高、升压药使用更加普遍、血清碳酸氢盐水平更低、脓毒血症患病率更高。超炎型患者与非超炎型相比临床结局更差,病死率更高、自主呼吸天数和无器官衰竭天数更少。
在ALVEOLI研究中,PEEP对两种类型ARDS患者的90 d病死率、自主呼吸天数及无器官衰竭天数有不同的影响。该研究提示,超炎型ARDS型患者炎性反应、休克、代谢性酸中毒更加严重,且临床结局更差;两种类型ARDS患者对PEEP的反应也不同,超炎型患者运用高PEEP与低PEEP相比可降低病死率,而非超炎型患者运用高PEEP的病死率更高。一项纳入了3个随机对照试验的meta分析结果显示,氧合指数≤200 mm Hg(1 mm Hg=0.133 kPa)的ARDS患者运用较高PEEP与低PEEP相比可使病死率降低5%,而氧合指数>200 mm Hg的ARDS患者运用高PEEP却使病死率升高[61]。CALFEE等[60]的ARDS分型对PEEP反应的差异较氧合指数对PEEP反应的差异更加明显,提示其分型可能比单纯以氧合指数进行分型对指导临床治疗的意义更大。同时,CALFEE等[60]的研究也存在一定不足,包括:其采用的是传统的ARDS预后标志物,如应用基因或代谢标志物可能有利于更全面的分型;研究无法将酗酒[62]、吸烟[43]、肥胖[63]等可能变量纳入分析,这均有待后续研究的完善。
MROZEK等[64]根据胸部CT表现将119例ARDS患者分为局灶型和非局灶型。局灶型指胸部CT提示肺密度增加呈叶段分布,非局灶型指肺密度增加呈弥漫性分布。当患者病情不允许行胸部CT检查时,以胸部正位片或肺部超声检查代替,肺密度增加区域主要位于肺下叶时将患者纳入局灶型组,当肺密度增加区域在肺上叶及下叶均匀分布时将患者纳入非局灶型组。最终局灶型组纳入了32例(26.9%)ARDS患者,非局灶型组纳入了87例(73.1%)ARDS患者。非局灶型组中位血浆sRAGE水平为3 074(1 930,4 404)μg/L,明显高于局灶型组的877(494,1 049)μg/L。采用血浆sRAGE水平区分局灶型和非局灶型ARDS,受试者工作特征(ROC)曲线下面积为0.93,当最佳截断值为1 188 μg/L时,灵敏度为93%,特异度为84%。多因素分析,结果显示ARDS患者的血浆sRAGE水平对胸部CT表型、简化急性生理状态评分系统(SAPS)Ⅱ评分、平台压有影响。非局灶型ARDS患者28 d及90 d病死率均高于局灶型组;对ARDS死亡危险因素进行多因素分析,结果显示只有血浆sRAGE水平、SAPSⅡ评分是ARDS患者死亡的独立危险因素。血浆sRAGE水平作为ARDS中反映Ⅰ型肺泡上皮细胞损伤和肺泡液体清除率的标志物[65-67],该结果也提示非局灶型ARDS肺泡液体清除率受损较局灶型ARDS更严重,且血浆sRAGE水平可作为基于胸部CT表现的ARDS分型。CONSTANTIN等[68]的研究结果表明,肺复张策略可改善弥漫性肺通气减低的ARDS患者的动脉血氧分压,却无法改善局灶性通气减低的ARDS患者的动脉血氧分压。由于局灶型ARDS和非局灶型ARDS的病死率及对机械通气的反应可能存在不同,对于局灶型和非局灶型ARDS患者机械通气方案个体化的研究也正在进行中。
综上所述,不同表型的ARDS在发病机制、临床表现、治疗方案、预后等诸多方面存在差异,但目前尚无一种完美的分型方法可以指导ARDS的临床治疗,仍需要大量的基础及临床研究。
作者贡献:杨卿进行文献检索并撰写论文;颜春松进行文章的构思与设计、论文的中英文修订,负责文章的质量控制及审校,对文章整体负责,监督管理。
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(本文编辑:王凤微)
Research Progress on Heterogeneity of Acute Respiratory Distress Syndrome
YANGQing,YANChun-song*
RespiratoryMedicineDepartment,theSecondAffiliatedHospitalofNanchangUniversity,Nanchang330006,China
*Correspondingauthor:YANChun-song,Professor,Mastersupervisor;E-mail:ycs65@126.com
Acute respiratory distress syndrome(ARDS) is a heterogeneous syndrome that differs in different cases in terms of etiology,pathogenesis,clinical manifestations,treatment regimen,prognosis and other aspects.And based on these differences,we can classify ARDS into different phenotypes in order to guide clinical therapy and judge prognosis.This article reviewed the recent developments in heterogeneity and phenotypes of ARDS.
Respiratory distress syndrome,adult;Heterogeneity;Phenotype
R 563.8
A
10.3969/j.issn.1007-9572.2017.13.023
2016-11-03;
2017-01-24)
330006 江西省南昌市,南昌大学第二附属医院呼吸内科
*通信作者:颜春松,教授,硕士生导师;
E-mail:ycs65@126.com