A Study of Hybrid Religious Perspective of Lin Yutang’s Autobiography：Focusing on From Pagan to Christian

[Republic of Korea]Yoo Di Son

A Study of Hybrid Religious Perspective of Lin Yutang’s Autobiography：Focusing on From Pagan to Christian

[Republic of Korea]Yoo Di Son

1.Introduction

The history of Christian missionaries have begun from Jerusalem with the evangelism of Apostle Paul and it spread throughout Turkey，Europe，and America and consequently，many missionaries from Portugal，Spain，England，Netherlands，and Germany have started the lifelong journey to East Asia as a result.When they have first arrived into ports in southern China，Joseon was not generally known of entry for the Christian missionaries，but Robert Morrison，1782－1834 was the first protestant missionary to China who arrived to Macao in September 1807.Lin Yutang，1895－1976 was born in Changchow漳州Amoy，southeastern province of mainland China and he grew up under the parenthood of pastor father and Lin including his siblings have attended the Christian school where they had naturally encountered with Christian missionaries from the Western world.Lin’s father had closely associated and developed the friendly relationships with many Christian missionaries because they have often stayed at his residence for several weeks.On the other hand，many harbors were forced to open in time of the Opium War，and the missionaries have begun entering into China such time which led many people have negative perception of Christian missionaries with their entry，associating the Christian doctrine as addictive like toxic opium and imperialism fleet with their what appear to be luxurious lifestyle.

Lin Yutang has written three autobiographies：Importance of Living，1937，From Pagan to Christian，1959 andMemoirs of an Octogenarian，1975.①The original source has been published as a part ofThe Importance of Living，John Day Company，1937；From Pagan to Christian，The World Publishing Company，1959；Memoirs of an Octogenarian，Mei Ya，1975.References：Translated version by Byung－Chul Kim，《 》，Bumwoosa，1985；Translated by Jong－rak Hong.《 》，Poiema，2014.and Translated by张振玉：《林语堂自传》·《八十自叙》，《林语堂名著全集》第十卷，长春：东北师范大学出版社，1994年版。Lin was openly acceptative about the Christianity which led him to start as theology major at the Saint John’s College in Shanghai.②School Motto at Saint John’s College：Light and Truth in English；《论语·为政》：“学而不思则罔，思而不学则殆。”Under the guidance of the principal of the college，Sherwood Eddy，1871－1963，who was a missionary and educator.When a revival movement and Foreign Missions Student Volunteer Movement broke out in America，Eddy was among one of 16，000 volunteers.③The Student Volunteer Movement（SVM）began in North America 1886 and continued well into the 20th century.It was begun by students and was a missionary－recruiting movement.In its first decade the SVM spread to many nations around the world.The SVM became a mainstream organization in American society.From 1886 to 1920，when over 13，000 North Americans were sent as missionaries，the SVM had recruited 8，742 of them.Lin studied bible under his principal before he has changed his major to English Literature.④Eddy taught the Bible outside of school with John R.Mott（1865－1955），a strategist in SVM.Then he walked away from Christianity after he graduated from the college as he has started teaching at Tsinghua College.⑤“1917年《新青年》曾发表一系列讨论宗教价值和意义的文章，到1922年的非宗教运动、收回教会学校的教育主权运动以后，基督教渐渐淡出中国知识界。”施萍：《林语堂：文化转型的人格符号》，北京：北京大学出版社，2005年版，第44页。He was a bilingual writer in Chinese andEnglish and he has explored many religions such as Confucianism，Laoism，Taoism and Buddhism before he made return back to Christianity.

Theology，of whatever kind，always detracts from the power and simplicity of Jesus’teachings.……Many of us who had to “learn Shakespeare”in school acquired such a permanent distaste for Shakespeare that we never wanted to touch his work again for the rest of our lives.……What I am saying is that what prevents men from knowing Jesus is exactly these doctrinaire busybodies，that their confusion of creeds and dogmas kept me away from Christianity for thirty years，and that their five－and－ten－cent theology prevented me from seeing Jesus.①Lin Yutang，From Pagan to Christian，The World Publishing Company，Cleveland，1959，pp.230－231.

From his departure from Christianity until the year of 1959，his lifelong religious perspective remained relatively same as he has used many of writing topics such as world’s nature，human moral sense，and reasoning for his discussion in writings.Also，he has spent much of his time in analyzing many English and Chinese writers；while he compared Confucius with Laotse，Laotse with Chuangtse，Laotse with Jesus，Confucius with Jesus，Confucius with Marx，Chuangtse with Pascal；Chuangtse and Buddhism，Taoism and Confucianism，Taoism and Christianity，Marxism and evolutionism，Science and Religion.After he had conducted extensive analytic processes of many religions and philosophers，he finally proposes that he has reached the salvation way for humankind.

Lin’s position on Chinese modern literary field is very narrow and limited in Korea；however，this article has expanded the research study of Lin’s writings.Most of articles are focused on Lin as an essayist with the agreement that he went through Christian－Pagan－Christian religious journey.②刘勇、杨志：《论林语堂的宗教文化思想与文学创作》，《中国现代文学研究丛刊》2008年第4期。其论文中说，林语堂持有西方、儒家、道家的混合思想：大学时期是无神论者；五四时期是儒佛道者；后期小说创作时期是儒佛道加上基督教徒。王兆胜：《林语堂宗教文化思想论》，《中国文学研究》1998年第4期。论文中说，林语堂一向没有放弃对上帝的信心，表面上是多神论者，内心里面却是基督徒。This paper is written based on the influences of these two publications：The Religious Character of Lin Yutang’s Novels in the Anti Japanese War Period（Yeong Kil Paik：2006）③For a specific assessment on Lin Yutang by Young－Kil Paik，refer to the article below：Religious Trait in Lin Yutang’s Novels in the Anti Japanese War Period－Integration and Conflict of Eastern and Western Culture，Journal of Chinese Language and Literature，Vol.31，2006，pp.435－457.－the analysis of Lin’s later works and Hermann Hesse and Lin Yutang （Jooyeon Kim：2004）－the focus of Lin’s early Christianity.The purpose of this paper is to research on Lin’s hybrid religious perspective in his autobiographies with more in depth analytic approach which is represented in his entire writing career.

2.Integrated Perspectives of Confucianism－Buddhism－Taoism

Every scholar has his own statistics to interpret the beginning of Chinese modern literature and most of them would agree that The May Fourth Movement has offered a new way to enter the modern literature.Especially，Hu Shih’sChinese Literary Renaisanceand Chen Tu－shiu’sLiterary Revolutionin 1917 had a tremendous impact on this new era，④“From The May Fourth to the early 1930s，10 years of new culture and literary movement took place.……There is a controversy on when is the beginning of modern literature（1917 or 1919）.……Whereas 1917 was the year of theoretical argument on literary revolution，from 1918，actual creation of literary works began.……Starting from the proclamation of the Literary Revolution in 1917，Vernacular Poetry by Hu Shih，Chinese vernacular short stories by Lu Xun，presentation of the first modern Chinese play－The Greatest Event in Life《终身大事》by Hu Shih－such a journey until March，1919 reveals that modern Chinese literature was already forming and being established in content，form，theory，and practice.”SejongYoo，Theory on Distinguishing Periods of Modern Chinese Literature，China Studies，Vol.6，1991.4，pp.271－298.and ithas indicated as new culture and literary movement against imperialism and feudalism.①“Going into The May Fourth Movement，it is a widespread belief in the Chinese intellectual community that the period between 1895 to 1920 was the transition period.Among the period，The May Fourth Movement was the most turbulent that triggered a sweeping change in the everyday life in knowledge of Chinese.”Kyung－ran Cho，Emergence of May Fourth New Intellectual Group and Conservatism：Initial Response by Conservatism on New Cultural Movement，Journal of Chinese Pre－modern and Modern history，Vol.44，2009.12，pp.61－89.Many writings during this era had combined the elements from eastern Confucianism，Buddhism，and Taoism sequence with the western philosophies.②“The May Fourth Movement acts as a crossroad that divides China from the pre－modern to modern period across not only political and social areas but also cultural areas as well.As a single incident，the movement is a student movement that began on The May Fourth of 1919 against the notoriousTwenty－one Demandsby Japan，but in the Chinese history and literature，it goes beyond a mere incident to take on an extensive sociocultural meaning.”Jiwoon Baik，Critical Analysis on Enlightening Literature in Modern China，Journal on Chinese Language and Literature，Vol.26，2004.2，pp.331－351.Similarly to this phenomenon，Lin’s writing career has integrated both eastern and western thoughts with the cultural influences.③“林语堂试图以《京华烟云》来诠释中国道家文化之精髓，并将木兰称做‘道家儿女’，但姚木兰其实并不是出自纯正的‘中华血统’，而是基督教与中华文化的‘混血儿’，融会了林语堂对道、儒、佛以及基督教等多种宗教文化思想的多重理解……这是林语堂所理解的典型的‘半东半西’的理想化人生。”施萍：《林语堂：文化转型的人格符号》，北京：北京大学出版社，2005年版，第69页。Inconsistency of the tradition’s position often was programmatic from the new literature until 1930s and the writers in the beginning of modern literature era were extremely skeptical towards traditional culture and the moral of Confucianism.However，just like the idiom that says “no plant exists itself without supporting root”，one must know that the modernity would not have been existed without the supporting root of tradition.

Lin published his first publication entitledA Study on the Index of Chinese Character and Western Literature论汉字索引制及西洋文学，New Youth新靑年4.4 in 1918 and he also participated in this anti－traditional movement.He went to Harvard in the following year and he has received doctorate in linguistics at Leipzig University in 1923，before his return to China.④“Since the late 19thcentury，the greatest among the meaningful changes in the public sector of cities is the increase of international contact in Chinese public.In line with this progress，in the first few decades of early 20th century，numerous intellectuals emerged in the new environment of Chinese social organizations.They were highly educated and took substantial interest in politics，but unlike their preceding scholarly officials，had almost no close relationship with central political power.Anyhow，they kept on acquiring international knowledge through translated writing from other countries，or by studying at prime educational institutes that teach in English.In addition，thousands of students went overseas to study，mostly to Japan，Europe，and the US.”Kyung－ran Cho，E-mergence of May Fourth New Intellectual Group and Conservatism：Initial Response by Conservatism on New Cultural Movement，Studies on Modern Chinese History，Vol.44，2009.12，pp.61－89.Many young elite writers had a firm foundation on the Confucianism and as they begin to learn and apply new thought with modern literature，they started to make their entrance into the time and era through these two prisms.Lin was conversant with eastern tradition and philosophy.He said， “I lived in the mansion of Confucius，climbed up to the peak of Mount Tao，and saw the dissolving mist of Buddhism.”Confucianism，Buddhism and Taoism coexisted in the life of Chinese，integrated with one another，not excluded against others.They were harmonious，consonance among these thoughts and one says a great Confucianist knows well Buddhism and Taoism，and a Taoist is also good friend of Confucianist and Buddhist.

Thus the fulfillment of the God－given nature and the realization of man’s true self were Confucian tenets.In this，both Confucianism and Taoism agreed.……Laotse’s influence is great because he filled a void left by Confucian positivism and common sense.……a nation can use both，in fact needs both.You have to have a Martha and you have to have a Mary in the family.……For Taoism and Confucianism are，as I have said，only two facets of the

Chinese soul，one of action，of doing and believing.①Lin Yutang，Cleveland，1959，pp.85，110，111.

Lin believed Confucianism and Taoism could be compensatable.②“我们大家都是生就一半道家主义，一半儒家主义。”《谁最会享受人生》，《中华散文珍藏本·林语堂卷》，北京：人民文学出版社，2000年版，第75页。“Lin Yutang not only discovered that Confucianism and Taoism complemented each other，but also took further interest in the compatibility between Taoism and Christianity.……People deem that Confucianism and Taoism are two extreme polarities of Chinese Ideology.Yet when seen up close，this issue is just not that simply explained.”施萍：《林语堂：文化转型的人格符号》，北京：北京大学出版社，2005年版，第91页。While he was baptized with western New Humanism，his traditional foundation became more solid at the same time.The May Fourth Movement is dominantly anti－traditional act and literary work during 1930s became the era of rethinking and recalculating the canon literature.③“如果说‘五四’文学只是在整体上观念性地直接否定了三大传统文化，那么30年代文学则是对传统文化进行了一次具体的、有意识、有差别的反思与梳理。”见肖百容：《道佛成悲儒成喜——传统文化的现代形象探析》，《文学评论》2011年第4期。From The May Fourth，Confucianism was criticised dramatically and the Confucianist thought are always depicted rather comically in the main characters.④“By publishing the novel titledDiary of a Madman，he severely criticized the manner－focused stance of Confucianism，Chinese traditional ideology.”In Cho Jeon，Flow of Modern Chinese Novel，Eastern and Western Literature，No.191，1990.6，pp.304－312.However，Taoism has become refuge and shelter and Buddhism became as a salvational subject.⑤“儒家几乎独自承担了国衰民弱的罪责，道佛有惊无险，而且很快地，道家成了‘五四’弄潮儿舔舐伤口的避风港，佛教则被认为经过现代改造后富有拯救世界、安慰苍生的功能。”引自肖百容：《道佛成悲儒成喜——传统文化的现代形象探析》，《文学评论》2011年第4期。Confucianist were often being mocked and Taoist or Buddhist were depicted as supernatural being within the writings.⑥“非常有意思的是，儒家人物和儒家思想成为文学作品中被嘲弄和被调侃的对象，被全方位地喜剧化了。而道佛两家人物和思想则往往被作家们所赞美和认同，但作家们的态度已不像‘五四’时期那样直接，而是经过审美化的过程在创作中潜在地表现了出来。”肖百容：《道佛成悲儒成喜——传统文化的现代形象探析》，《文学评论》2011年第4期。

Buddhism first occurred in India and many writers published stories based on the transcendent view，then they compose the religious narrations with the local circumstances and influences in mind.⑦Jin－young Kim，Buddhist Discourse and Classic Narrative，Bogosa，2012，p.14.For instance，Taoism places the human and mother nature at the same stage and promoted self denial is the way to become one with nature.Whereas Confucianism is based its orientation in reality and many people considered it as the chain reason for old customs or practices of evil.But Lin was different，he thought the reason Confucianism being criticized is that a great deal of Confucius’concern about God and God’s will and his view of the spiritual nature of the universe have been obscured by the usual notion of Confucian positivism.⑧Lin Yutang，Cleveland，1959，p.68.

He explains the reason how those men became philosophical founders and he states that their followers emphasized only the one aspect of great thought.Not only，he expresses great passion on Chuangtse but he also shows great admiration to Su Tungpo，the master of three philosophies.Lin wrote most of his works in Chinese during 1920s before he started to write novels in English in later 1930s.He claimed himself as a man who has eastern spirit with the western way of thinking.⑨“我这个有着东方精神也有着西方精神的人。”林语堂：《优游人间》，西安：陕西师范大学出版社，2007年版，第3页。He also insists every religion to thinks the truth is within only one religion is false.⑩“各种宗教相信只有它自己所发现的才是唯一的真理。”林语堂：《优游人间》，第12页。He says a right way to approach every religion and philosophy is to find the common idea and to search the truth and beauty out of it.

But approach each other on closer scrutiny.This is particularly true of the Chinese teachings as regarded by the Chinese themselves.……It is merely the Chinese ability to admit truth and beauty wherever they are found.①“In the case of Confucianism，it is not possible to say that a Christian cannot be a Confucianist.……Taoism reinforces the Christian reachings on love and gentleness more than many people dare to admit.And if the Buddhist formula for salvation is different from the Christian one，its basic starting point，the recognition of sin and deep concern with the fact of human suffering，is akin to Christianity.”Lin Yutang，Cleveland，1959，pp.65－66.

I find the philosophic basis of Confucianism satisfactory.……Chuangtse is my favorite.……Buddhahood accounts for a great deal of the spiritual of Chinese landscape painting.②Lin Yutang，Cleveland，1959，pp.85，129，170.“孟子的那种比较积极的人生观和老子的那种比较圆滑和顺从的观念，协调起来成为一种中庸的哲学，这种中庸的哲学可说已成了一般中国人的宗教。”林语堂：《谁最会享受人生》，《中华散文珍藏本·林语堂卷》，北京：人民文学出版社，2000年版，第57页。

Lin’s later literary work explains his spiritual view and his readers would identify his stories are all connected to three dominant philosophies with the western sphere.Furthermore，not only he was obsessed by Chuangtse，but he also fell madly in love with the Person of Jesus Christ himself.

It would not do to make a convenient contrast between darkness and light，or to say that，Christianity being“true”，Confucianism is therefore “false”.It would not do to dismiss the Buddhist religion with the simple phrase“heathen idolatry”.And it would not do to say that Jesus’teachings on love and humility are right，therefore Laotse’s teachings on power of love are wrong.③Lin Yutang，Cleveland，1959，p.65.

He claimed that he has found the balances among three philosophies and he has discovered a mixed philosophy，not demanding the existence of one truth，but mutual substitution.His belief is not biased unto one particular thought or idea rather he knew the Chung－yung中庸.He believes the truth in every philosophy and he expertised in three and he registered himself as Christian at Madison ave.Manhattan，in which David Lee was the lead pastor.He officially became a Christian in New York，but he said it does not mean he got saved by the protestant doctrine.He admitted that he has reached to the highest point of these philosophical truths，and yet he stayed in between of the mixed spiritual and physical bridle.

3.Hybrid Christianity

The new literature movement in the 1930s has started with Chen Tu－shiu④“As Robinson reveals，Chen Tu－shiu，at a point，was deeply fascinated by the character of Christ，and the idealism of Christianism，contemplating on merging Christian faith with Chinese nationalism，while ardently claiming through the pages ofNew Youththat the Chinese should acquire the teachings of Jesus like a blood transfusion to be utilized as a potential alternative for a new China.”Hye－Young Shim，Encounter between Modern China and Christianity，Seen through the Window of Modern Chinese Literature，Journal of Chinese Language，Literature and Translation，Vol.28，2011.1，pp.217－241.who was studying in Japan during that period and Hu Shih in the US.It is worth noting to point out that the education，culture，and western movements has significantly influenced on the modern literature and Lin Yutang was more than ardent in a diverse array of school activities during the years at Saint John’s College.For instance，he was the student council president，English and English literature discussion team leader，a novel writing and English speech contest awards recipient，student periodicalThe Echo，1914 and college annalsJohannean，1916 editor.Lin has studied at a Christian English school since his childhood which influenced his view and philosophy that not only he resembled the culture of Americans in speaking and in English writing，but also in his behavior.For example，Lin Yutang was seen as a person immersed in American culture when he was seen on the deck of the ship heading toward the US for graduate school study，holding his wife’s hand dressed in a suit and walking about casually.First publication of short story in his school magazine affirms clearly how Lin Yutang examined and explored the Christianity from his youth.Although the story does have happy ending，where a young man named Han－leh汉乐upon realizing that his fiancee was disappointed due to his wavering faith，but later he restores faith and decides to become a pastor，①钱锁桥编：《林语堂双语文集·小评论》，北京：九州出版社，2012年版，第23页。it was quite opposite storytelling with his real life story at such time because he actually decided to stop learning theology and walk away from the Christianity.

On the other hand，Peking and Shanghai are two major cities that represents the Chinese modern literature of the 1930s and upon returning and moving from Peking and Shanghai to begin his writing，Lin Yutang abandoned the formal suit which represents the moderation and unties the necktie which resembles a dog collar.Instead，he puffed on a cigarette while he wrote on casual topics without being held to any specific rules or styles on everyday.Shanghai was a city full of various actively writing authors at that time，consisting of an extensive range of races，languages，and cultures being portrayed diversity.Lin Yutang has published many works in the Chinese magazines such asAnalect论语，Cosmic Wind宇宙风，This Human World人间世，however，most of his works were first published in the English magazineThe Little Critic.Lin Yutang was able to write in both Chinese and English in its fluency while encompassing the studies and ideas of both the East and West.He introduced his only play，Confucius Saw Nancy子见南子，1928 which portrays the passive stance and mental conflict of Confucius as a human.Confucius’descendants were criticizing the play claiming that it insulted and brought disgrace to their ancestor，resulting in the dismissal of the principal of the second college of educational department who have grant the permission of the play.②Young Hee Goh，Confucius in Modern China，Confucianism Study，31stcollection，2014，12，pp.427－446；“林语堂笔下的孔子散发着西方人文主义的气息而不见了道德人格的桎梏。”施萍：《林语堂：文化转型的人格符号》，北京：北京大学出版社，2005年版，第63－64页。Nevertheless，Lin Yutang focused on the human nature of saints.

In order to understand the Christian sentiment of Lin Yutang，as he portrayed Jesus Christ as a human，it is necessary to examine J.Ernest Renan（1823－1892），who was highly praised even by Schweitzer.Their ideas of Christianity are very similar and Lin Yutang evaluates Renan as a disciple of Christ，who is a fair test of objectivity.③Lin Yutang，Cleveland，1959，p.229.Just like how Lin Yutang sensed the doubt in his career pursuing ministry in the Theology School in St.John’s College and how he turned into English literature writer，Renan also who studied at St.Sulpice has left school immediately before graduation.④“In order to seek academic truths and protect pure faith，Renan left Catholic.His contemplation，over an entire lifetime，was aimed at a pure religion of the humankind，a highly humanistic religion in which the character of every human becomes lofty.He is a person who was so fascinated by the character of Jesus that despite the disbelief of the resurrection，followed Christ without a speck of doubt.”Myung－kwan Choi，Futility and Naturalness，Publishing Department at Soongsil University，1998，pp.122－123，128.What they have in common is that despite drifting apart from theology，they became even closer to Jesus Christ as merely man，and their faith toward Heavenly Father the only God remained intact.They both loved Jesus who lived a life of a human and as saint with integrity and honesty.

In 1863，Renan wroteVie de Jésus.He states that in order to describe the history of religion，two conditions must be satisfied：first，the writer should be or have been a believer and second，the writer is now should not believe on religion unconditionally.The reason is that absolute faith cannot coexist with real history.⑤“To write the history of a religion，it is necessary，firstly，to have believed it（otherwise we should not be able to understand how it has charmed and satisfied the human conscience）；in the second place，to believe it no longer in an absolute manner，for absolute faith is incompatible with sincere history.”Written by Ernst Renan，Translated by Moo－HoPark，Life of Jesus，Publishing Department at University of Ulsan，1999，p.51.He again states，“Jesus is unparalleled.His glory remains perfect.Among any and all names，all eras will claim that no other human has been born who is greater than Jesus.”⑥“All the ages will proclaim that among the sons of men there is none born who is greater than Jesus.”Written by Ernst Renan，Translated by Moo－Ho Park，1999，p.114，358.This meant that he extolled Jesus Christ as a son of a human.Renan did not believe in the resurrected Jesus Christ，and claimed that the resurrection is actually a hallucinational image by Mary Magdalene，who was possessed by the sevendevils.①“In the absence of opposing documents，this can never be ascertained.Let us say，however，that the strong imagination of Mary Magdalene played an important part in this circumstance.”Written by Ernst Renan，Translated by Moo－HoPark，1999，p.342.Lin Yutang agrees with his reasoning.Although Jooyeon Kim argues that Lin Yutang has reacquired redemption and truth within Jesus，but the doubt still remains on whether he has actually affirmed the holiness of Christ.

Confucius apparently had as strong a sense of revulsion against glib talkers and hypocrites as Jesus had against the Pharisees.②Lin Yutang，Cleveland，1959，p.70.

It is unknown that what Lin Yutang could possibly was seeking，as he concentrated on Confucius，does he wanted Jesus to receive attention as a human being.Nonetheless，he denied the holiness of Christ，and yet acknowledged his teachings and followed Jesus as a human teacher.Researching into the resources on the core principles of Christianity such as original sin，penitence，and redemption，shown inFrom Pagan to Christian，affirms that Lin Yutang is not a doctrinal Christian.First，there is ambiguity in the concept of the Trinity.Second，argument is made on that seven days creation of world is a figurative expression rather than actual truth.Third，the original sin in Christianity is only a symbolic meaning.In this way，his faith can mainly be expressed in three traits.Although Lin Yutang recognizes Jesus as a great teacher，and describes that if there exists redemption，the humankind may only be redeemed by teaching of Christ，③“I accepted Him as truly Lord and Saviour of us all.Only Jesus，and no one else，could bring us to that direct knowledge of God.Morally and ethically，it is a world of imcomparable beauty.”Lin Yutang，Cleveland，1959，p.239.it can be seen that he is flatly denying the divine trait of Jesus as well as the guilt borne by humans.④“首先被他质疑的是原罪。……林语堂认为原罪观念太神秘了……他根据法律和伦理的常识，从信徒和‘上帝’两个方面否定了原罪的可行性。”施萍：《林语堂：文化转型的人格符号》，北京：北京大学出版社，2005年版，第39－40页。Although he sought an “power，and something else– the absolute clarity of light，without the self－limitation of Confucius，the intellectual analysis of Buddha，or the mysticism of Chuangtse”⑤Lin Yutang，Cleveland，1959，p.225.from the world of Jesus，⑥“The world of Jesus is the world of sunlight by comparison with that of all the sages and philosophers and the schoolmen of any country.Jesus’teachings have that immediacy and clarity and simplicity which puts to shame all other efforts of men’s minds to know God or to inquire after God.”Lin Yutang，Cleveland，1959，p.223.“林语堂对传统基督教中夹缠不清的教义和荒谬不经的理论深恶痛绝，但并没有简单地否认‘上帝’。”施萍：《林语堂：文化转型的人格符号》，第36页。Christ was peerless to him among numerous saints，as can be seen by in his words that go，Laotse and Jesus are brothers in spirit.⑦Lin Yutang，Cleveland，1959，p.226.

Christians who read this writing may think it is quite similar to “Sermon on the Mount”by Jesus.Laotse said， “the foolish will be blessed，”since they are the happiest in the world.This is similar to ‘Sermon on the Mount’which also has a tinge of sarcasm.⑧“在信仰基督教的读者们看来，这句话或者很像耶稣的‘山上训言’，而也许同样地对他们不生效力。老子说，愚者得福，因他们是世上最快乐的人。这句话好似替‘山上训言’加了一些诙谐的成分。”林语堂：《谁最会享受人生》，《中华散文珍藏本·林语堂卷》，北京：人民文学出版社，2000年版，第72页。

The Christian sentiment of Lin Yutang that is criticizing the materialism and seeking a humanism－oriented Christianity，is indeed hybrid belief.In other words，it acknowledges that the differential expressions of the saint’s words are interchangeable philosophical thoughts that complement with one another.

Theological books began to flood into China from Southeast Asia，dating back to the mid－1800s，mostly translated and distributed actively by the missionaries of Europe and the US，⑨Soon－BangOh，A Missionary in the 19thCentury Spreading Chinese Christian Novels，Professor of Chinese Literature at Soongsil University，presented at National Chengchi University in March，2007.and were retranslated and published in local dialectsat Kwangtung广东 and Fukien福建，Southern China.Lin Yutang，who spent his days as student at the port of Fukien，was naturally exposed to western civilization through his father’s active education and accommodation.In 20th century China，as Christianity was equal with western civilization，it was not something to be ousted，but a subject to which the Chinese should accommodate and be accustomed.Western missionaries were also often witnessed in the Foreign Settlements，Shanghai.①“The context Christianity was placed under in the 20thcentury China is not simple nor singular，and Christianity has existed in as various forms as the complexity stemming from interactions with such context.”Hye－Young Shim，Encounter between Modern China and Christianity，Seen through the Window of Modern Chinese Literature，The Journal of Chinese Language，Literature and Translation，Vol.28，2011.1，pp.217－241.Chen Tu－shiu，an advocate of the literary revolution came to read the Bible while imprisoned，and connected the idealism in Christianity such as freedom，equality，philanthropy，and democracy with direct social revolution to recognize such connection as the basis for realizing an ideal country.②“The strategy of Chen Tu－shiu，aimed at separating the‘character and teachings of Jesus’from church traditions and its corruption，and Christian theology，to raise new awareness on Christianity，exerted great influence of creating an ‘unprecedented rise in Christianity’in the May Fourth literary circle.”Hye－Young Shim，Encounter between Chen Tu－shiu and Christianity during May Fourth Period：Focusing on Christianity and Chinese，Modern Chinese Literature，Vol.63，2012.12，pp.61－91.The Chinese Substance and Western Function中体西用 which they applied Western learning into Chinese culture and philosophy.

Lin Yutang’s ideology as a writer and religious belief were clearly reflected in his works after 1936.By relocating to the US，he moved away from Eastern culture and began writing under the influence of Western ideology.From Pagan to Christianwas a representative example，but it did not mean that his spiritual root was moved as well.What he did was to plant western culture in the grounds of national culture.The religious belief that is shown in his autobiographical writing is therefore highly hybrid.By stepping out of the boundaries of Christianity that have been surrounding him from childhood，Lin Yutang realized that the Chinese people have a hybrid stance on religion as they have a mindset of a Buddhism，looks up to Confucianism，and prefers the thoughts of Laotse but also can accept and follow the teachings of the Catholic church.

I can express the teachings of Buddhism in a few words，“take sympathy in all things”.Jesus said，“He that is without sin among you，let him first cast a stone at her.”（John 8：7）Wouldn’t this be a warning that urges the public to reflect upon themselves，while at the same time，expressing sincere sympathy？③“我想，佛祖的教训可用五个字总括，即‘怜天下万物’。而耶稣对那个被捉住的淫妇正受犹太村民包围投石时说：‘慢着！且让那些没有犯过罪的人投击第一块石头。’这就是表现出一种宽宏的哀怜并教众人反省的警惕。”林语堂：《论东西文化的幽默》，《中华散文珍藏本·林语堂卷》，北京：人民文学出版社，2000年版，第219页。

As a writer，Lin Yutang has significantly influenced the modern Chinese literature.He has reached across a wide spectrum including language，culture，ideology，and religion from both sides of the world.As it was found in the English magazineLittle Criticand the English－translated classic short stories entitledFamous Chinese Short Stories，the writer does not tilt toward one specific aspect，but rather takes a multi－faceted，multi－dimensional approach by taking a step away from the dichotomy between modernism and tradition，east versus west，and left against right.④钱锁桥编：《林语堂双语文集·小评论》，北京：九州出版社，2012年版；林语堂著，张振玉译：《中国传奇》，西安：陕西师范大学出版社，2003年版。

In similar manner that resembles the Renan’s path，Lin Yutang follows Jesus as Son of Man，and he placed，Christ above Confucius，Laotse，Chuangtse，and Buddha in terms of religions.His ideology，as repeatedly shown in his autobiographical writing，was a mixture of philosophy and saints’beliefs.As he confessed，Lin Yutang never once left the Lord in his entire life.Exploring various ideologies from both world，he finally discovers the light of truth in the Christianity.However，one can also see that although he affirmed and followed the historic Jesus objectively as Renan once did，he did not acknowledge Christ as the Son of God.In his 80－year life span，Lin Yutang describes himself asa heretic，anarchist，humanities scholar，Taoism scholar，or a Christian，and at the same time affirms the existence of the Lord as a basic power①林语堂干脆把“道”与“上帝”、“主宰”等同起来，“道教提倡一种对那虚幻、无名，不可捉摸而却无所不在的‘道’的崇敬，而这‘道’就是天地主宰，他的法则神秘地和必然地管辖着宇宙”。林语堂不去深究“道”与“上帝”、“主宰”的区别，而对其关联倍感兴趣，这里，林语堂凭直感把“道”与“主宰”看成是“二而一”的东西。……不管林语堂一生的宗教信仰如何变化，但对冥冥中的天地主宰的信仰却没有变化，“他的宗教信仰表面矛盾、混乱，而其内心里却是统一和清晰的，他以‘天地主宰’为支点，把各种宗教融为一体。”王兆胜：《林语堂宗教文化思想论》，《中国文学研究》1998年第4期。that rules the entire universe，nature，and human mind.Yet he only takes Jesus，who came to this world as a mere human being，as the only true teacher ever.

Chinese，therefore，make rather poor Christian converts，and if they do，they should all become Quakers，for that is the only sort of Christianity they can understand.Buddhism itself，when absorbed by the educated Chinese，became nothing but a system of mental hygiene，when is the essence of Song philosophy.②钱锁桥编：《林语堂双语文集·小评论》，北京：九州出版社，2012年版，第138页。

Lin Yutang deeply empathized with the saints and philosophers regardless of one’s view.From the autobiographical writing from his college days to the religious confession in middle age，and to the memoirs in his late days，his religious belief breaks through literary and worldly perspectives to form a staunch pillar.Most scholars take note of and evaluate Lin Yutang on his consecutive changes from a Christian to pagan and then back to Christian.Yet as is clearly stated in his most works regarding his religious belief，when it was seen from the conservative stance of Christian doctrine as western paradigm in integrating with oriental philosophy，and will be categorized as a believer who follows mixed Christianity that encompasses the ideology of Confucianism，Buddhism，and Taoism，along with universal traits of Christianity.

4.Conclusion

Lin Yutang’s father，who had grown up as third generation Christian families since his grandmother time，was a pastor of the presbyterian church working around the clock to further to make an impact to fluence the village church.Not only he was a Confucian scholar and pastor simultaneously，but he was also a pioneering liberalist.He passed onto his children new studies and knowledge from the western world，while he also taught them how to write Chinese calligraphy similarly to Neo－Confucianism scholar Chu Shi朱熹.③“童年之早期对我影响最大的，一是山景，二是家父，那位使人无法忍受的理想家，三是严格的基督教家庭。”《八十自叙》，《林语堂名著全集》第十卷，长春：东北师范大学出版社，1994年版。Lin Yutang was raised in such a family where tradition and modernism co－existed together and while studying theology at a missionary established school，he sensed the lack of knowledge in Chinese tradition，thus，he discontinued all other studies to deeply focus and examine the Chinese ideological and philosophical root and his writing was open to various interpretations.

Even in From Pagan to Christian，which was covered in its majority of this paper，integrated theology exists of Confucianism，Taoism，Buddhism，and Christianity.If only a few segments were highlighted out for reading，one will try to label Lin Yutang as a Taoist，and another as a Christian.Such hybrid religious belief of the writer that encompasses philanthropy of Christianity，Confucian view of life centered on reality，passive resistance to the secular world shown in Buddhism，and rustic，nature－seeking philosophy of Taoism，fascinated not only the publishers in the US but also readers around the globe.④“由于他对基督教、佛教、道家、儒家的详细考察，使他的宗教观中既有基督教的‘博爱’思想，又有儒家的重现实人生，更兼道家的无为、静观和性灵上的自由，这种中西融合、开放、多元的宗教观为他的人生和文学创作插上了翅膀，使他飞得更高、更远。”杜玲：《林语堂宗教观述略》，《北方论丛》2004年第6期。He also dearly loved the natural creations，stating that true literature is to simply expressing the words one wants to say being followed by natural human instinct.The reason he sought the mother nature and fell in love with the nature was because he had reverence for the mountains since his childhood.Mountains andother mother nature exerted holy influence on him.Renan also grew up surrounded by mountains，and this common ground may have caused them to think that in order to accumulate knowledge to understand Jesus Christ as a human being that they love，it was a prerequisite to understand the mountains as an important geographic factor.

There is something about living in the country so close to the high mountains，for to be close to them is to be near God’s greatness.Those high mountains have become a part of me and my religion.①Lin Yutang，Cleveland，1959，pp.20－21.

Lin Yutang ceaselessly sought truth like Taoist who lives in the monastery in mountain isolating their lives from the world in seeking the truth.He described himself as a person immersed in Taoism who is a Confucian on the surface，but is a Christian inside，and others would say that he is a Taoist turning into a Christian for a time and then a Confucian moving from one spectrum to another to seek the truth.As he states that all people have religious traits resembling Quakers who believed that everyone could be redeemed if they find，mature，and develop the divinity in themselves？ Did he find the truth within himself？

Most Chinese would be puzzled and would not know how to answer if asked what their religion was.No family is exclusively Buddhist or Taoist or Confucian.Perhaps the wife is a devout Buddhist who pledges vegetarian fasts for a month or a year for the granting of some wish before the Buddha，while the husband，being a Confucian scholar，tolerates her；or the reverse may be the case.②Lin Yutang，Cleveland，1959，p.149.

Lao She老舍，an author who wrote works of realism in Chinese modern literature，is assessed by these words，“As a writer，he was a mixture of political nationalism and religious redemption，and such a combination was deemed as a dream harmony between the great eastern world of the traditional Confucian ideology in China and the heaven of Christianity.”③“Wouldn’t it have been the path 20th century China has been seeking to the dialectic integration of China and West，tradition，and modernism？”Young－gil Paik，Chinese Literature of Modern Times，Korea University Press，2015.In this context，when comparing with Lao She who stayed in the US for a year，Lin Yutang，who called himself a Christian during his 30 years overseas，could not help but have a profound mixture of eastern folk concept with western religion.Through his works，he portrayed a world longing for a utopia，in which the ideologies of Confucianism，Buddhism，and Christianity merged and mixed together.④“他思想里杂有许多佛儒道的思想分子。”陈熊彪、黄丽坤：《基督教信仰视野中的林语堂》，《语文学刊》2006年第2期。

The author presents his ideology through the autobiographical writing，and an autobiography was written by past experience and the path of religious belief.Lin Yutang has written casual and short journals，editorials，and essays until the age of 40，and then thereafter he became a novel author.Yet this doesn＇t mean that he stopped writing shorter works.He engaged in fierce debates with famous contemporary Chinese authors and had exchanges with western authors such as Jean Paul Sartre（1905－1980），Smedley Agnes（1894－1950），George Bernard Shaw（1856－1950），and Pearl S.Buck（1892－1973）.Since childhood，he learned from missionary teachers，and was exposed to the ideology of students volunteering for missionary work.⑤“原来林语堂先生也和胡适一样，是用西方的眼睛来看中国人，看中国文化，看中国的儒家、道家的，但他有的不是一般西洋人的眼睛，而是西洋传教士的眼睛。”施萍：《林语堂：文化转型的人格符号》，第63页。However，his spiritual foundation consisting of Confucianism and Christian sentiment is always shown in a mixed form through autobiographical writing.Also，the observant attitude toward life and death，emotional expression that forthrightly describes desire and obsession，utopian perspective replaced by nature，and view of the universe acknowledging the Lord as the only God reveal the diversity of the writer’s religious traits.

While Lin Yutang doesn’t exclusively support toward any particular religion and ideology，but at the same time he displays strong religious characteristics and with such religious background，he takes on a dominant role in the main flow of his novels’themes.As it was previously mentioned，in his short stories published in the school magazine，the main male and female characters meet and breakup are closely related to such beliefs，and they reunite only when themale character restores his faith and decides to become a Presbyterian pastor.Lin Yutang’s literary works involves Christian anguish all over as it is found in his writings.While he has confessed that he has come around a long path of 30 years to become a Christian again，he also professed that Jesus that exists deep inside him was not the Jesus who is the logos，but someone that can be replaced with Taoism by Laotse.As such，even though his literature affirms human nature and religious reflection，and is backed by serious scrutiny into truth，no conflicts or friction between religions are described.This may be due to the reason that，as previously mentioned，he looked at the ideologies of saints as interchangeable and on equal terms.

Modern religious traits of the Chinese politically subject to the absolute faith and adherence to the Communist party.Despite their declaration on freedom of religion，they are a people bound to religion，yet they have a peerless，long history than any other country in terms of focus on human，worship of God上帝，reverence for nature，and concrete manifestation of spiritual discipline through Confucianism，Buddhism，and Taoism.When examining the various channels of missionary work into the East，although the influence may be anemic，such history can date back to the Tang and Song Dynasty.Also，Christianity of the west may have turned into a compound ideology amid the different folk customs and turmoil of revolution.At such turbulent times，Lin Yutang stayed in the center of things at times and at other times would step away to the surroundings.In the clashing conflict between mixtures of ideologies，he did not accommodate them in a closed manner，but took them as interchangeable and connectable blocks.He argued that although the emphasis by Confucianism，Buddhism，and Christianity may differ，their essence is the same.

Although he stated that he loves Jesus as a human being，and even agreed with Renan that no other truth in this world is as simple，clear，and accurate as proclaimed by Christ Jesus，the Light Lin Yutang has discovered was not Jesus as the Son of God but Christ as a son of man rather，a mere human being.He did not turn religion back into presupposed concept，but microscoped it as having a close relationship with the reality，and merged Christian sentiment with traditional ideology.Also，he was not confined to the boundaries of one religion，but rather mixed various elements to create a state of mixture.As Kwang－seonSeo argues that the ideas of Lin Yutang displayed in the autobiographical writing namedFrom Pagan to Christianrepresents the concerns of the Chinese intellectuals in the early 20thcentury，but it also shows the personal religious wandering that ends at the point of understanding the humanist Christ.①Gwang－SeonSeo，Book Review－From Pagan to Christian，Christian Ideology，21（6），1977.6，pp.156－169.

Every autobiographical writing of Lin Yutang was published in English except those written in his early college days and analysis on specific audience would not be overlooked.Also，he may have played the role of an evangelist spreading eastern philosophy to the western world.Yet as his last confessional writing，Memoirs of an Octogenarianwas published in English in Taiwan，has received much attention for its given style and content of the writing itself than the target audience.Even when it was read excluding the expressed language and main audience，Lin Yutang’s private religious traits are limited in that it is a mixed concept of Confucianism，Buddhism，Taoism，and Christianism，which culminates by finding a truth within mankind.It can be said，however，that Confucianism，Buddhism，Taoism，and Christianity do not conflict with each other in his works，but are integrated together in a complementary and interchangeable form that this may well be the greatest philosophical characteristic of the autobiographical writing by Lin Yutang.

Lin refers himself as“A Bundle of Contradictions”，the term“contradiction”is not in terms of conflict or discord，but of supplement and substitute，which he refers to Christianity，Confucianism，Laoism，Chuangism and Buddhism all mingled together which has become his unique approach of the hybrid religious perspective.In other word，while he has claimed that he has found the light of truth in Christianity，he only gave the high appraisal to the philosophy and teachings of Christianity while he closely stayed connected with other religions.Therefore I conclude him as a good man of Christianized religious writer rather than a genuine Christian.

【责任编辑 孙彩霞】

孙柱迪（Yoo Di Son），韩国高丽大学博士候选人，主要研究方向为离散文学、美国华人文学、中韩比较文学。