西方农业经济学理论与方法新进展研究

2015-08-15 00:55:00杜为公,李艳芳
武汉轻工大学学报 2015年3期
关键词:生产率经济学农业

西方农业经济学理论与方法新进展研究

杜为公1,李艳芳2

(1.武汉轻工大学 湖北县域经济研究中心,湖北 武汉 430023;2.军事经济学院,湖北 武汉 430035)

摘要:按照现代主流经济学的理论框架,从农业生产、农业生产要素、农业经济政策、农业发展与经济增长,研究方法等方面展现西方农业经济学理论与方法的新进展。研究目的是为我国农业经济学理论体系构建和农业经济发展提供借鉴。

关键词:农业经济学;新进展

收稿日期:2015-06-09.

作者简介:杜为公(1964-),男,副教授,E-mail:18702711368@163.com.

基金项目:2013年国家社科基金后期资助项目(13FJY007);2014年湖北省社科

文章编号:2095-7386(2015)03-0094-06

DOI:10.3969/j.issn.2095-7386.2015.03.020

中图分类号:F 118

New development of the theory and methods in

western economics of agriculture

DUWei-gong1,LIYan-fang2

(1.Center for County Economy Development Research in Hubei,Wuhan Polytechnic University,Wuhan 430023,China;

2.Military Economics Academy,Wuhan 430035,China)

Abstract:Based on the theoretic frame work of modern economics, this paper provides us with the information about the new progress in the field of western economics of agriculture. Specifically, the passage contains: agricultural production, the factors of agricultural production, the policy of agricultural economy, the relationship between the development of agriculture and the booming of economy and research methods. This research will contribute to the establishment of the theoretical system of our country while also acting as a reference for the development of agricultural economy..

Key words:economics of agriculture ;new development

1引言

西方农业经济学理论与方法新进展研究是通过对近期国外农业经济学相关研究的梳理,总结现代西方农业经济学理论与方法新进展,分析其理论与方法发展趋势,并说明应当如何科学借鉴,有助于我国农业经济学理论体系构建和农业经济发展。本文试图按照现代主流经济学的理论框架展现西方农业经济学理论与方法新进展。

2关于农业生产研究的新进展

关于农业生产函数研究,主要运用由生产函数、贸易函数、需求函数构成的系统模型分析现代农业经济的基础。有学者试图寻找适用于所有国家的农业生产函数,如使用Rwtlan函数对数据进行分析,认为农业机械的弹性随时间不断提高,化肥的弹性呈下降趋势,教育对生产率的提高具有正效应(Mans and Francis,2003)[1]。学者们重视土地制度对农业生产的影响。认为土地制度改革的趋势是采用自愿的、分散的、市场化的方式将土地从大型农场转移到小农场,可以提高贫困者的需求曲线和大农场的供给曲线,即将土地从富人转移到贫困者手中(Deiniger and Olinto,2000)[2]。大型种植园是在殖民地国家存在的一种有效生产方式(Robert and Andrew,2010)[3]。比种植园更有效率的方法是采用“订单农业”的方式,政府应及时提供上述政策支持,内容应涉及利率、土地税,提供教育、研发和技术普及投入等(Hayami,2002)[4]。1952—1978年,中国土地改革的目标是满足工业和城市部门的发展需要,政府采用土地集中和大面积耕种的方式,各种生产要素向大生产单位集中,产品由国家统一收购,投入要素由国家统一提供。这种方式对农民的生产激励很小,农业生产率低下(Shenggen and Joanna,2010)[5]。

3关于农业生产要素研究的新进展

在农业劳动力投入决策、农业人力资源投资影响、农业人力资源投资、农业生产与农业要素流动、农业劳动力转移等方面,有学者对择业选择、劳动合同与政策影响进行了经济学分析,说明了农业劳动力就业选择、劳动合同和劳动力组织问题特点(James Sang Hyop,2007)[6]。在假设有效率的情形下,相关的劳动市场研究涉及了农户决策与生产组织问题(Yang,2003)[7]。计件工资可以用于可观测、工作效果可计量的工作,如运输农产品等。但对于不明显的工作,如施洒化肥等,一般不会采用计件工资。对易于监控的工作,则可以采用固定工资合同,对不易监控的工作,则倾向于使用计件工资合同(Newman and Jarvis,2000)[8]。在新“二元论”中,一般基于大型农场雇佣劳动力生产的无效率而效率较低,需要采用土地改革政策进行调整(Deininger,2003)[9]。当前的研究应关注如何使家庭耕作向专业化和市场化的耕作方式转变。需要建立超越空间、时间的农产品生产与消费产业链(Reardon,2005)[10]。当农业收入是主要收入来源时,农业收入决定了教育投资;当接受教育的农业工人在非农部门找到工作后,教育投资的回报率提高(Hayami and Godo,2005)[11]。有学者给出了由农业技术进步、人力资本提升引发的可观测的经济增长的分析框架,借助于2000年世界经济增长与发展的经验数据,给出了教育对经济增长贡献的计量经济学分析数据,讨论了健康、营养、劳动对经济增长的作用,总结了教育对农业产出贡献率(Wallace,2002)[12]。技术进步促进了传统农业向现代农业转变,技术进步提高了劳动生产率,使农业剩余劳动力向城市工业部门转移,对长期的经济增长具有重要作用。有学者(Johnson,2000)研究了由初始农业部门劳动力转移引发的长期经济增长问题[13]。Smih和Haddad(2000)利用跨时间、跨国界数据研究了改善儿童营养的投资决策问题,认为决策的50%决定于父母的受教育水平,25%决定于粮食的供给水平,20%决定于饮水和卫生条件[14]。在关于农业新技术推广、农业技术与农业生产、农业技术变化影响、农业技术研发投资收益等方面,认为经济发展和市场化水平提高进一步促进了农业机械化的发展。有学者研究了机械采用模式和作用,以及农业机械化政策问题(Prabhu,2007)[15]。农业研发可以直接提高小型农场和农业家庭产量,从而提高食物的自我消费量和市场交易量,可以从农业之外的其它部门获得更多的工资收入,可以改善农民的市场决策能力,提高抵御市场风险的能力。但也有学者认为,缓解贫困和收入均等化是不同的概念,农业研发不能同时解决这两类问题(Hossain,2007)[16]。增产技术与土地节约技术对环境的影响不同。土地节约型技术可能会带来土地贫瘠、土壤肥力下降、生态多样化丧失等问题,这种技术仅适用于贫困问题严重和人口密集地区。产量增长型技术有助于保持森林和植被,但也会因化肥、农药使用过度带来新的环境问题(Hazell and Wood,2008)[17]。证实了技术投资对发展中国家的全要素生产率(TFP)的重要作用(Antonio and Robert,2010)[18]。绿色革命改变了南亚国家的经济状态,也改变了农业研发的目标和实施,即由提高农业生产率为目标,转变为加强自然资源管理和农业经济体制创新为目标(Asian Development Bank,2000)[19]。信息传递同样具有价值,信息传递方式主要有,从朋友、邻居,从农业投入要素供给企业,从媒体、政府获取信息等。现代农业已经成为信息密集型产业,如何提供信息来满足需求,取决于市场和制度环境(Gautan,2000)[20]。扩散对农业发展具有正向作用,扩散投资的回报率为58%、研发的回报率为49%,研发与扩散投资的回报率为36%(Alsto,2000)[21]。研发提高了农业生产率,在推动农业部门增长的同时也带动了非农部门的增长,研发已经成为现代经济发展的引擎(Robert and Douglas,2007)[22]。

4关于农业经济政策研究的新进展

关于政策对价格、产出,以及纳税人、消费者和生产者福利作用的研究,涉及单一政策工具的使用,分析了系列农业经济政策间的福利转移和转移效率问题,涉及供给条件、要素供给弹性、要素成本分担和要素之间的替代关系等。多数研究仅涉及对农产品价格、农业投入要素市场有直接作用的农业政策问题的研究(Alston and James,2002)[23]。对于多数国家,GATT谈判后,农产品贸易政策方面仍然留下了许多问题,存在很多无效率的贸易条款。多哈会谈、WTO谈判对这些问题进行了部分修正,特别是在市场准入、出口竞争等方面取得了进展。下一轮的WTO谈判为解决这些问题提供了机会(Daniel A.Sumnerr,2002)[24]。各种因素引发的“市场失灵”都会作用于农业。农业的外部性表现在土地水分和营养成分的流失;灌溉系统对自然水系的破坏;平流层臭氧的增加;农药残留和食品添加剂使用过量等。由于农业生产存在风险,农业政策需要在不完全竞争的市场条件下设计风险分担政策。农业保险市场也存在信息的不对称问题,采用风险分担合同则可以激励农民降低风险的努力(Chambers,2002)[25]。不完全竞争可能引发农业生产中的低效率行为,使农业产量下降。如会出现高定价(产出)、低定价(投入)和过度投资现象(Sexton and Lavoie,2001)[26]。为达到粮食补贴政策的目标,政府需要对现有生产状态进行精确统计,为了提高信用市场的效率,政府需要面对信息不完全和“隐匿信息”的问题(Robbrt,2002)[27]。

5关于农业发展与经济增长研究的新进展

在农业发展与经济增长方面,根据Ravallion(2007)的统计数据显示,发展中国家农业人口占总人口的比例约为70—75%[28]。农业是发展中国家的重要产业,主要出口产品是农产品,农业产值占GDP的15—30%左右,农业生产率直接影响国家的宏观经济指标,影响经济增长(World Development Indicators,2009)[29]。有学者借助跨国界的时间序列分析寻找农业生产率与经济增长之间的相关性,认为农业生产率与经济增长有相关性,但相关关系不确定。在开放食物进口的条件下认为,资源向工业部门的流动可以带来高速的经济增长,这一观点被实施工业化战略的国家采用(Temple,2005;Vollrath,2009)[30]。有学者(Irz,2002)分析了农业生产率提高与贫困缓解之间的关系,认为农业生产率提高对缓解贫困比其他部门生产率提高更加有效[31];有学者(Gardner and Tsakok,2007)[32]找到了农业生产率与经济增长之间关系的证据,但同时指出,仅从数据分析上不能确定两者之间的因果关系。面对使用现实数据无法确定两者的相关性的问题,有学者(Gollin,2004)提出从历史数据中寻找答案,基本研究结论是:几乎所有国家的工业增长都得益于农业生产率的提高,但农业悲观主义的学者认为,没有证据可以说明农业生产率提高将会带来经济的增长[33]。农产品是基本消费品,直接影响劳动效率;大量工业品用于农业生产提高了农业交易成本。对于土地稀缺的国家,提高农业生产率保障食物供应的自给率很重要,这是经济增长的基础(Gollin and Rogerson,2009)[34]。农业可以直接提高收入、保障粮食安全、缓解贫困、改变性别歧视、提供优美的生态环境(FAO,2004)[35]。农业发展的间接作用是改善了国民营养水平,提升人口受教育比例,任何忽视农业间接作用的农业重要性评估都是不公正的(Valdes and Foster,2005)[36]有学者认为,农业生产率提高有利于缓解贫困,如亚洲农业生产率提高15%,可以使贫困率下降0.485。在南亚地区,农业部门的贫困弹性高于其他部门(World Bank,2007;Hasan and Quibria,2004)[37]。这些国家的农业增长主要是依靠采用先进的农业生产技术(Thirtle,and Lin and Piesse,2003)[38]。农业也提高了女性在社会中的地位,更有利于建设平等的社会(Gollin,2009)[39]。农业气候条件约束使土地资源利用效率低;制度障碍也阻碍了农业生产率的提高(Pingali,2006)[40]。但农业收入的快速增长、城市化、农产品贸易融入国际市场、新技术采用和对气候条件适应能力提高,给农业新一轮发展带来了机遇(Pingali,2006;Byerlee,2009;Pingali and McCullough,2009)[41]。农业收入增长引发的食物结构变化,增长提高了农村女性的城市就业率,也为农业生产结构调整带来了机遇(Pingali,2007)[42]。

6关于研究方法的新进展

西方农业经济学者认为,农业经济研究方法本身就是农业经济理论研究的根本问题。不同时期的农业经济学家在农业经济研究中使用的方法不同,研究理论及其研究方法的演进,并找出问题有利于寻求发现农业经济学新的发展方向。经济学数量化研究方法,必然涉及到它的数学性。做为应用经济学的一个分支——农业经济学也有明显的“数学化”倾向。步骤一:运用公理化方法得出纯农业经济理论的最初分析结构,并进行规律分析。数理分析是把农业经济问题“翻译”成数学方程,然后进行数学推导并得出结论。农业经济问题“翻译”成数学方程是依据观察结果写成数学模型,进行数学推导并得出结论是对模型实施的数学演算。数理分析能否揭示农业经济发展规律,主要取决于数学模型是否表述了规律,数学模型是形成数学语言的思考框架。数学运算对思考框架的展示。建立数学模型只有遵从了准确的范式,才能使研究结果具有解释力、预见力、启发力和规范力,现代农业经济学的数理分析格外强调对范式的表述和对范式的理解。步骤二:测度并精确化展示。经济学认识农业经济运动的基本规律是逐步进行的。农业经济的数理分析只完成了这个思考过程的第一步。数理分析结果必须发展为更精确研究才能完成最后认定,对农业经济规律准确性的认识还要取决于对数量的精确识别,因为仅从数理分析结果中还不能清楚地认识规律。数理分析结果给出了规律组成成分的界限、分类和单位,也明确了计算的意义。测度计量是数理分析的延伸,其基本目标是展开测度计算,并通过数据把规律由定性的逻辑结构推向定量的数值结构,更精确地展示使准确性规律。农业经济学数理分析属于纯理论研究,测度计量是后续的试验研究。测度计量结果是得出一个数量表达经验公式。现代计算技术条件下,只要有必要的数据来支持是可以实现的。测度计量是单纯的方法可以服务于任何数据。测度计量在农业经济研究中可以服务于经验概念,同样也服务于推理。步骤三:检验真实性。一个学科的科学性或其发展状况要以实验观察的成果来反映。逻辑性和精确性不一定能说明规律的存在,只有通过实证检验才能给出证明。农业经济学的实证检验手段主要有两种:即可控制实验和实地观察。可控实验为高级的实证检验方法,实地观察(实证)为初级的实证检验方法。农业经济学中的实证检验只有在数理分析和测度计量的引导下才具创新功能。只有可以证明的结论才是规律,才属于科学的真理。农业经济实践结构复杂,运动周期长,科学能力弱,可控实验一直没有明显的进展。电子计算机技术已经被引入到农业经济学的研究,使农业经济学进一步科学化。在农业经济的研究获取现实的数据方面,实地观察的实测性是任何其他手段都不能替代的,能获得“第一手”资料的经验相当重要。但“第一手”资料并不具有第一的作用。可控实验发展将取代“第一手”资料的方法。

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[8]Newman,C., and Jarvis,L.Worker and firm determinants of piece rate variation in an agricultural labor market[M].Agricultural and Resource Economics Working Paper, 2000,No. 00-028.University of California Davis.

[9]Deininger,K.Land Policies for growth and poverty reduction:A world bank policy research report[M].World Bank and Oxford Univerity Press 2003.

[10]Reardon,T.Supermarketeization of the 'emerging markets' of the Pacific Rim:Development and trade implications[J].Journal of Food Distribution Research,2005 36(1).

[11]Hayami,Y., and and Godo,Y.Development Economics:From the Poverty to the Wealth of Nations[M].Oxford: Oxford University Press,,2005.

[12]Wallace H., and P.O.Agriculure and human capital in economic growth: Farmers,schooling and nutrition[M]. In B.L.Gardner and G.C. Rausser,Eds., Handbook of Agricultural Economics, 2002,Vol. II,2282-2237.

[13]Johnson,D.G..Population, food,and knowledge[J].American Economics Review 2002,90,1-14.

[14]Smih,L.C., and Haddad,L.(2000).Explianning Chind Malnutrition in Developing Countries:A Cross-Country Analysis[M].International Food Policy Research Institute,Washington,DC.

[15]Prabhu,P.(2007).Agricultural mechanization: adoption patterns and economic impact[M]. In R.Evenson and P. Pingali,Eds., Handbook of Agricultural Economics, Vol. Ш,2780-2804.

[16]Hossain,M.Rice research,technological progress,and poverty:The Bangladesh case.In Agricultural Research,Livlihoods and Poverty:Studies of Economic and Social Impacts in Six Countries[M].Johns Hopkins University Press, 2007.

[17]Hazell,P., and Wood,S.Dricers of change in global agriculture[M].Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B , 2008,363(1491),495-515,12 February.

[18]Antonio Flavio Dias Avila and Robert E. Evenson.Totol factor productivity growth in agriculture: The role of technologica Capital[M]. In B.Evenson and P. Pingali, Handbook of Agricultural Economics, 2010,Vol. IV.3769-3796.

[19]Asian Development Bank.Rural Asia:Beyond the Green Pevolution[M].Manila,Philippines: Asian Development Bank, 2000.

[20]Gautan,M. Agricultural extenson:The Kenya experience:An impact evaluation[M].Operations Evaluation Department,World Bank,Washington,DC, 2000.

[21]Alsto,J.M.A meta-analysis of rates of return to agricultural R&D: expede Herculem[M].Research Peport 113.IFPRI, Washington,DC, 2000.

[22]Robert,E.E., and Douglas ,G. Contribution of national agricultural system to crop producativity[M]. In R.Evenson and P. Pingali,Eds., Handbook of Agricultural Economics, 2007,Vol. Ш,2420-2450.

[23]J.M.Alston and J.S.James.The incidence of agricultural policy[M]. In B.L.Gardner and G.C. Rausser,Eds., Handbook of Agricultural Economics, 2002,Vol. II, 1691-1749.

[24]Daniel A.Sumnerr.International trade policy and negotiations[M]. In B.L.Gardner and G.C. Rausser,Eds., Handbook of Agricultural Economics, 2002,Vol. II, 2000-2055.

[25]Chambers,R.G.Information incentives,and the desigen of agricultural polices[M] . In B.L.Gardner and G.C. Rausser,Eds., Handbook of Agricultural Economics, 2002,Vol. II, 1751-1825.

[26]Sexton,R.L, and N. Lavoie.Food processing and distribution: An industrial organization approach[M] . In B.L.Gardner and G.C. Rausser,Eds., Handbook of Agricultural Economics, 2001,Vol. I, 865-932.

[27]Robbrt I.Market failures and second-best analysis with a focus on nutrition, credit, and incomplete markets[M] . In B.L.Gardner and G.C. Rausser,Eds., Handbook of Agricultural Economics, 2002Vol. II, 1828-1869.

[28]Ravallion,M., and Chen,S.New Evidence on the Urbanization of Global Poverty[M]. World Band Policy Research Working Paper 4199. Washington,DC:World Bank,2007.

[29]World Bank. World Development Indicators,2009.

[30]Temple,J.Dual economy models: A primer for growth economists[M].The Manchester School, 2005,73(4),435-478; Vollrath,D.How important are dual economy effects for aggregate productivity?,Journal of Development Econmics, 2009, 88(2).325-334.

[31]Irz,I. Agriculture productivity and economy-wide groeth: investigation in a Ramsey framework. Manuscript[M].University of Reading,Department of Agricultural and Food Economics, 2002.

[32]Gardner B., and Tsakok,I. Agriculture in economic development: Primary engine of growth or chicken and agg[J].American Journal of agricultural Econmics,2007,89(5),1145-1151.

[33]Gollin,D.Farm work, home work, and international productivity difference[J]. Review of Economic Dynamics, 2004,7(4),827-850.

[34]Gollin,D., and Rogerson,R.The greatest of all improvements: Roads, agriculture, and economic development in Africa[M].Mimeo:Williams College Department of Economics, 2009.

[35]FAO.Socio-economic analsis and policy implications of the roles of agriculture in development countries[M].Research Programe Summary Report.Rome,Italy: Roles of Agriculture Project,FAO, 2004.

[36]Valdes,A., and Foster,W.Refections on the role of agriculture in pro-poor growth[M].Paper prepared for the research workship: the future of small farms.Kent: Wye College,2005.

[37]World Bank.World Development Report 2008: Agriculture for Development[M].World Bank: Washington DC,2007;Hasan,R., and Quibria,M.G.Industry matters for poverty: A critique of agricultural fundamentalism[M].Kyklos,2004,57,253-264.

[38]Thirtle,C.,Lin,L., and Piesse,J.The impact of Research-Led Agriculture Productivity Growth on Poverty Reduction in Afria,Asia, and Latin America[M].World Development,2002,31(12).1959-1975.

[39]Gollin,D., and Rogerson,R.The greatest of all improvements: Roads, agriculture, and economic development in Africa[M].Mimeo:Williams College Department of Economics. World Bank: Washington DC,2009.

[40]Pingali,P.L.Agricultural growth and economic development: A view throuth the globaiztion lens[M].Presidential Address to thr 26th International Conference of Agricultural Economists,Gold Coast, Australia, 12-18 August,2006.

[41]Byerlee,D.Agricultural for development: Toward a New paradigm[M].Annual Review of Resoures Economics, 2009,3(41);Pingali,P., and McCullough,E.Drivers of change in Global agriculture and livestock systems[M].In H.Steninfeld,H.Mooney, and F.Schneider,Livestock in a changing landscape,2009.

[42]Pingali, P.L., and Raney,T.Sowing a gene revolution[M].Scientific America, 2007,September.T.Supermarketeization of the 'emerging markets' of the Pacific Rim:Development and trade implications[J].Journal of Food Distribution Research,2005 36(1).

[11]Hayami,Y., and and Godo,Y.Development Economics:From the Poverty to the Wealth of Nations[M].Oxford: Oxford University Press,,2005.

[12]Wallace H., and P.O.Agriculure and human capital in economic growth: Farmers,schooling and nutrition[M]. In B.L.Gardner and G.C. Rausser,Eds., Handbook of Agricultural Economics, 2002,Vol. II,2282-2237.

[13]Johnson,D.G..Population, food,and knowledge[J].American Economics Review 2002,90,1-14.

[14]Smih,L.C., and Haddad,L.(2000).Explianning Chind Malnutrition in Developing Countries:A Cross-Country Analysis[M].International Food Policy Research Institute,Washington,DC.

[15]Prabhu,P.(2007).Agricultural mechanization: adoption patterns and economic impact[M]. In R.Evenson and P. Pingali,Eds., Handbook of Agricultural Economics, Vol. Ш,2780-2804.

[16]Hossain,M.Rice research,technological progress,and poverty:The Bangladesh case.In Agricultural Research,Livlihoods and Poverty:Studies of Economic and Social Impacts in Six Countries[M].Johns Hopkins University Press, 2007.

[17]Hazell,P., and Wood,S.Dricers of change in global agriculture[M].Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B , 2008,363(1491),495-515,12 February.

[18]Antonio Flavio Dias Avila and Robert E. Evenson.Totol factor productivity growth in agriculture: The role of technologica Capital[M]. In B.Evenson and P. Pingali, Handbook of Agricultural Economics, 2010,Vol. IV.3769-3796.

[19]Asian Development Bank.Rural Asia:Beyond the Green Pevolution[M].Manila,Philippines: Asian Development Bank, 2000.

[20]Gautan,M. Agricultural extenson:The Kenya experience:An impact evaluation[M].Operations Evaluation Department,World Bank,Washington,DC, 2000.

[21]Alsto,J.M.A meta-analysis of rates of return to agricultural R&D: expede Herculem[M].Research Peport 113.IFPRI, Washington,DC, 2000.

[22]Robert,E.E., and Douglas ,G. Contribution of national agricultural system to crop producativity[M]. In R.Evenson and P. Pingali,Eds., Handbook of Agricultural Economics, 2007,Vol. Ш,2420-2450.

[23]J.M.Alston and J.S.James.The incidence of agricultural policy[M]. In B.L.Gardner and G.C. Rausser,Eds., Handbook of Agricultural Economics, 2002,Vol. II, 1691-1749.

[24]Daniel A.Sumnerr.International trade policy and negotiations[M]. In B.L.Gardner and G.C. Rausser,Eds., Handbook of Agricultural Economics, 2002,Vol. II, 2000-2055.

[25]Chambers,R.G.Information incentives,and the desigen of agricultural polices[M] . In B.L.Gardner and G.C. Rausser,Eds., Handbook of Agricultural Economics, 2002,Vol. II, 1751-1825.

[26]Sexton,R.L, and N. Lavoie.Food processing and distribution: An industrial organization approach[M] . In B.L.Gardner and G.C. Rausser,Eds., Handbook of Agricultural Economics, 2001,Vol. I, 865-932.

[27]Robbrt I.Market failures and second-best analysis with a focus on nutrition, credit, and incomplete markets[M] . In B.L.Gardner and G.C. Rausser,Eds., Handbook of Agricultural Economics, 2002Vol. II, 1828-1869.

[28]Ravallion,M., and Chen,S.New Evidence on the Urbanization of Global Poverty[M]. World Band Policy Research Working Paper 4199. Washington,DC:World Bank,2007.

[29]World Bank. World Development Indicators,2009.

[30]Temple,J.Dual economy models: A primer for growth economists[M].The Manchester School, 2005,73(4),435-478; Vollrath,D.How important are dual economy effects for aggregate productivity?,Journal of Development Econmics, 2009, 88(2).325-334.

[31]Irz,I. Agriculture productivity and economy-wide groeth: investigation in a Ramsey framework. Manuscript[M].University of Reading,Department of Agricultural and Food Economics, 2002.

[32]Gardner B., and Tsakok,I. Agriculture in economic development: Primary engine of growth or chicken and agg[J].American Journal of agricultural Econmics,2007,89(5),1145-1151.

[33]Gollin,D.Farm work, home work, and international productivity difference[J]. Review of Economic Dynamics, 2004,7(4),827-850.

[34]Gollin,D., and Rogerson,R.The greatest of all improvements: Roads, agriculture, and economic development in Africa[M].Mimeo:Williams College Department of Economics, 2009.

[35]FAO.Socio-economic analsis and policy implications of the roles of agriculture in development countries[M].Research Programe Summary Report.Rome,Italy: Roles of Agriculture Project,FAO, 2004.

[36]Valdes,A., and Foster,W.Refections on the role of agriculture in pro-poor growth[M].Paper prepared for the research workship: the future of small farms.Kent: Wye College,2005.

[37]World Bank.World Development Report 2008: Agriculture for Development[M].World Bank: Washington DC,2007;Hasan,R., and Quibria,M.G.Industry matters for poverty: A critique of agricultural fundamentalism[M].Kyklos,2004,57,253-264.

[38]Thirtle,C.,Lin,L., and Piesse,J.The impact of Research-Led Agriculture Productivity Growth on Poverty Reduction in Afria,Asia, and Latin America[M].World Development,2002,31(12).1959-1975.

[39]Gollin,D., and Rogerson,R.The greatest of all improvements: Roads, agriculture, and economic development in Africa[M].Mimeo:Williams College Department of Economics. World Bank: Washington DC,2009.

[40]Pingali,P.L.Agricultural growth and economic development: A view throuth the globaiztion lens[M].Presidential Address to thr 26th International Conference of Agricultural Economists,Gold Coast, Australia, 12-18 August,2006.

[41]Byerlee,D.Agricultural for development: Toward a New paradigm[M].Annual Review of Resoures Economics, 2009,3(41);Pingali,P., and McCullough,E.Drivers of change in Global agriculture and livestock systems[M].In H.Steninfeld,H.Mooney, and F.Schneider,Livestock in a changing landscape,2009.

[42]Pingali, P.L., and Raney,T.Sowing a gene revolution[M].Scientific America, 2007,September.

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