李进, 李天明, 高箬远
(云南师范大学 华文学院,云南 昆明 650092)
癌症是一种死亡率极高、严重威胁人类生命与健康的疾病,是全世界科学家长期以来最想攻克的难题之一.癌细胞是失去了正常生长控制而进行无限繁殖的一类细胞.且大多数癌变是由单个细胞引起的[1].人体成癌过程也是分多阶段进行的[2].目前普遍认为癌细胞有两个主要特征,一是无限繁殖,二是可转移性.德国科学家J.Muller早在1836年就发现癌细胞是一些异常与紊乱的细胞.而英国科学家P.Pott 于1875年研究发现打扫烟囱的人患阴囊癌的比率大大高出正常人,于是开始了对肿瘤病因的探索.日本学者K.Yanagiwa在1915年用煤焦油提取物涂抹于兔子皮肤上,发现有的兔子身上呈现出具有浸润性质的肿瘤,这是人工诱发癌症的开始.1976年,Bishop等[3]在鸡细胞中证实了src原癌基因的存在.1982年,温伯格等[4]分离得到了第一个癌基因-ras,随后还成功地鉴定了第一个抑癌基因[5].
目前人们对癌症的研究主要从致癌因素、治疗和预防等几个方面入手.
致癌因素可分为化学致癌、物理致癌和生物致癌[45].化学致癌主要来自于煤焦油、食物、染料、农药等物质中的致癌物,如苯并芘[6]、联苯胺[7]、氯菊酯[8]和金属镉[9]等.人们认为化学致癌的机理主要是化合物使DNA股间交联[10]引起基因突变而产生癌症.物理致癌是通过辐射产生的,这种致癌过程十分复杂,基本作用机制是首先引起DNA损伤[11],接下来是可遗传突变[12],进一步使突变细胞转化为癌细胞[13].如放射线在治疗癌症的同时,也可引发二次原发性肿瘤[14].生物致癌主要有病毒致癌[15]、细菌致癌[16]及基因致癌[18].1973年,Duesberg等[17]从Rous病毒中分离出一段具有转化功能的RNA,定名为src基因.也称为病毒癌基因,这是第一个纯化的癌基因.1976年,Bishop等[3]在鸡正常细胞中发现存在src基因,到目前为止,人们又发现了myc[18]、ras[19]等上百种人类致癌基因.在第一个抑癌基因Rb[5]发现后,又发现了p53[20]和nm23[21]等一些抑癌基因.人们推测某些miRNA与肿瘤细胞的发生密切相关[22],它的表达水平提高会促进或抑制肿瘤蛋白的合成[23].
癌症治疗的常用方法是药物治疗:如从红豆杉中提取的紫杉醇具有抗癌作用[24].DNA拓扑异构酶Ⅳ抑制剂类药物氟替康对直肠癌、肺癌和乳腺癌有一定的疗效[25];赛特伯是铂络合物抗肿瘤药物[26].依马替尼对慢性骨髓白血病和肠胃道基质瘤能够有效地控制[27].TNP-470能够阻断新生血管内皮细胞的DNA复制来抑制微血管的增生,从而达到抑制肿瘤作用[28].抗肿瘤抗体药物具有特异性靶向治疗的优点[29],新开发的双特异抗体药对癌症具有明显的疗效[30].传统的外科手术对早期的癌症治疗非常有效.在一些经验较丰富的治疗中心,肝癌手术切除成功率有很大的提高[31].一些医疗机构对直肠癌[32]和肺癌[33]等也进行了尝试性的手术治疗.放射治疗也是一种常用的杀死癌细胞的手段.60Co为能源产生的高能X射线和电子线[34]及调强适形放射疗法[35]常用于临床肿瘤治疗.螺旋断层放射治疗对恶性肿瘤有比较精确的疗效[36].利用细胞因子进行抗肿瘤主动免疫治疗取得了一定的成效[37].注射肿瘤坏死因子可以抑制肿瘤细胞浸润性生长[38].在接种肿瘤疫苗治疗方面人们也进行了有益的尝试[39].在临床上,科学家也尝试过用基因转移技术来治疗癌症[40].
癌症的预防主要分为两个方面.第一是从环境和饮食来预防,如远离辐射[13]、化学致癌物[6]和生物致癌因素[15]等,这是一种有效的预防患癌的途径.第二是通过检测对照病例人群癌症易感基因的多态性,从而检出癌症易感人群[41].
要弄清楚癌症的病因,首先要确定癌细胞的性质.从细胞行使功能的角度来看人类细胞可分为三大类:干细胞(stem cell)、已分化的细胞和癌细胞.干细胞是指一类具有自我更新和分化潜能的细胞.依据其分化能力又可分为3种:胚胎干细胞,可分化为人体各种类细胞[42];造血干细胞,具有多向分化潜能,产生多种血细胞[43];成体干细胞,仅产生一种细胞类型[44];已分化的细胞包含肌肉、皮肤、肝和肺等各种成体细胞.笔者认为癌细胞可能是高等动物细胞回复突变成“原始真核动物细胞”的结果[46],其特点是失去分化功能,可无限繁殖.这种细胞从进化的角度看,应该是动物细胞的原始低级形式.癌症从本质上来讲是生命现象另外一种形式的表现,是由突变细胞“返祖突变”产生的.这种“返祖突变”可以从正常分化细胞直接突变为癌细胞[47],也可以从正常分化细胞变为良性肿瘤细胞,再进一步突变为癌细胞.
凡是引起正常细胞向癌细胞转变的因素都是致癌因素.总体可分为二类,外因致癌和自发致癌.外因致癌主要包括化学因素致癌(如化合物)[6]、物理因素致癌(如射线)[13]和生物因素致癌(如病毒)[15].自发致癌是由于正常细胞本身在繁殖时发生自然突变而产生癌细胞,尽管这种患癌方式在患癌者中比率极小.
与正常细胞一样,癌细胞也是一个相对独立的完整生命体系,调节和控制其本身的代谢、生长和繁殖,其生命力强于正常细胞.因此,癌细胞的彻底根治是一个复杂的系统工程,必须从癌细胞的生命本质加以解决.要从癌细胞的生长、繁殖及失去分化入手.关键是要弄清楚对癌细胞生命现象的调控.可以从DNA水平上的调控、RNA水平上的调控和蛋白质水平上的调控来研究癌细胞是如何生长、繁殖和失去分化的.癌细胞调控从方式上可分为正调控和负调控.正调控由致癌基因[3,18-19]控制,促进向癌症方向发展;负调控由抑癌基因[5,20-21]控制,抑制向癌症方向发展.这两类基因可能单独作用或相互作用控制着癌症的发展,这就造成了致癌病因的复杂性.但任何类型的癌症都应有一个共同的生命代谢途径,因为它的最初形式是人类的正常细胞.
为了更有效地研究癌细胞的生长、繁殖机制,实验方法和实验材料的选择很重要.除了选择癌细胞外,还应选择干细胞、成体细胞及良性瘤细胞进行对照研究,找出它们生理代谢、调控、生长和繁殖的差异,达到了解生命现象、根治癌症的目的.全世界有研究能力的科学家联合起来,利用较成熟的人类基因组测序技术,首先对Hela细胞进行全基因组测序,从DNA分子的水平上对比癌细胞与正常细胞的差异,为解决癌症问题打下坚实的基础[47].
根治癌症是一项浩大的系统工程,必须从癌细胞的生命本质上着手.实际上,在理解了癌细胞的生长、繁殖机制的同时,也对生命的本质有了进一步的深刻了解,这将有助于解决延长人类寿命、治疗其他人类遗传疾病等疑难问题.
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