The Idea of ‘Maintaining Fullness’ in the Pre-Qin and Han Dynasties and the Way of Self-Cultivation and Governance

Zhai Kuifeng

Abstract: Chiman or chiying (two synonymous terms meaning “maintaining fullness”)was of general concern across the various disciplines o f pre-Qin philosophers.As recorded in many historical materials of the Warring States period and the Qin and Han dynasties,Confucius commented “how could there be a fullness that does not lead to overturning”when he observed a vessel that overturned when full in the ancestral temple of Zhou (or the temple of Lu) for “it inclines when empty, is upright when half full, and overturns when completely full.” He introduced his ideas on chiman with this observation.Western Han literature also recorded Confucius’s comments regarding the two hexagrams of Decrease(Sun) and Increase (Yi) in the Book of Changes, to further express ideas on chiman, that is, how one gains through self-effacing and remaining receptive.The Laozi stresses the idea of “never wishing to be full,” believing that “it is better to leave the vessel unfilled than to attempt to carry it when it is full,” advocates “withdrawing into obscurity after winning merit,” and opposes indulgence in extravagance and debauchery, which is another manifestation of chiman.Receiving an intellectual inheritance on the Way of life from the Laozi, the Guanzi further advocates “whoever pursues fullness must give it to Heaven,” and holds that a brilliant ruler is one who models himself on the Way of Heaven, seeking to be“full but not overfl owing” and striving to be “noble but never arrogant” and “wealthy but never extravagant,” thus a ruler may maintain his wealth, rank, and rule for a long period of time.The Discourses of the States, through recounting the story of Fan Li, offers a further extension to the idea of “pursuing complete fullness and following Heaven.” Thenceforth,the Confucian doctrine that “humility brings increase whilst pride incurs decrease,” and the Daoist doctrines of “withdrawing into obscurity after winning merit” and “bright but not dazzling” have jointly contributed to shaping the fi ner features of the Chinese people’s spiritual character.

Keywords: Confucianism, Daoism, chiman, chiying, fullness, decrease and increase,humility, obscurity

The idea ofchiman持满 orchiying持盈 (maintaining or holding fullness) represents an important subject of self-cultivation which was of general concern to the pre-Qin philosophers regardless of their philosophical persuasions.This idea exercised great infl uence on the ideas of self-cultivation cherished by scholars in ancient China.Of contemporary Chinese scholars, Pan Fuen 潘富恩 and Yang Jianxiang 杨建祥 are the fi rst to pay attention to and study this idea.1Pan Fuen 潘富恩 and Yang Jianxiang 杨建祥, “On Confucius’s ‘Way of Maintaining Fullness’” [孔子“持满有道”论],Journal of Zhejiang Party School of CPC [中共浙江省委党校学报], no.5 (1998): 16—21.As regardschiyingand related ideas in the Han dynasty (206 BCE—220 CE), Li Binghai 李炳海 and Yao Jingbo 姚静波 offer detailed discussions.2See Li Binghai 李炳海, “On Fortune or Misfortune Subject to Changing and the Way of Maintaining Fullness: A Glimpse into the Life Philosophy Conveyed in the Han Dynasty Literature” [ 祸福无常与持盈有术——汉代文学的人生哲理管窥], The Northern Forum [北方论丛], no.1 (1999): 69—76; Yao Jingbo 姚静波, “The Way of Holding Fullness and Maintaining Humility and the Rise and Fall of the Kinsmen of Imperial Consorts in the Han Dynasty” [ 持盈守谦之术与两汉 外戚之兴衰], Journal of Hengyang Normal University (Social Science Edition) [衡阳师范学院学报（社会科学）], no.2 (2001): 76—81.However,these studies each focusing on accounting for the practice ofchimanheld by a certain philosopher or school of thought, or prevalent in a certain period of history, and as such fail to present the idea in a comprehensive manner and are somewhat lacking in their review of relevant literature and critical thought.On the basis of these preceding studies, this paper represents a fresh attempt to conduct a comprehensive study ofchimanin the pre-Qin and Han dynasties by integrating literary, historical, and epistemological approaches.

Confucius’s Discourses on the Way of Chiman and Decrease-Increase in Early Confucian Literature [Refer to page 72 for Chinese.Similarly hereinafter]

Records of the story of Confucius seeing an inclining vessel (qi欹) while visiting an ancestral temple and discussing the idea ofchimancan be found in theXunzi,Han Ying’s Miscellaneous Collection[韩诗外传],Garden of Anecdotes[说苑], andConfucius’s Family Discourses[孔子家语].Though the records in these ancient documents are basically similar,they show some difference in some specifi c details.In “The Right-Hand Vessel” [宥坐] of theXunziand “Three Standards for Reciprocity” [三恕] ofConfucius’s Family Discoursesit is recorded that “Confucius was inspecting the ancestral temple of Duke Huan of Lu, when he saw a vessel inclined to one side,” whereas in volume three ofHan Ying’s Miscellaneous Collectionand “Respectfulness and Carefulness” [敬慎] ofGarden of Anecdotes, it is recorded that “Confucius was inspecting the ancestral temple of Zhou, when he saw a vessel inclined to one side.”3Whether Confucius inspected the ancestral temple of Lu or the temple of Zhou is perhaps an insignifi cant matter, and what counts is the ideas he expressed during the recorded event.See Fang Xuanling 房玄龄 et al., “Biography of Du Yu”[杜预传], in vol.34 of History of Jin [晋书] (Beijing: Zhonghua Book Company, 1974), 1028; Wang Guoxuan 王国轩and Wang Xiumei 王秀梅, eds., Confucius’s Family Discourses [孔子家语] (Beijing: Zhonghua Book Company, 2011),133; Wang Yinglin 王应麟, All about Difficulties in Learning [ 困学纪闻], vol.10, eds.Luan Baoqun 栾保群 and Tian Songqing 田松青 (Shanghai: Shanghai Classics Publishing House, 2015), 220.

On the occasion that is being recorded, Confucius went on to ask the temple caretaker what kind of vessel it was, who answered “it is the inclining vessel.” Thereupon, Confucius said, “I have heard of such a vessel: if empty, it inclines; if half full, it is upright; if completely full, it overturns.” Turning to his disciples, he told them to pour some water into it and found the vessel to move as he had just said.Thus, Confucius sighed deeply at it, “How could there be a fullness without overturning!”

Zilu 子路 (542—480 BCE), a disciple of Confucius’s, stood beside his master and asked whether there is a way to practicechiman.Confucius answered,

Brilliant intelligence and sage-like knowledge should be guarded by adopting the appearance of stupidity; meritorious achievements of national repute should be guarded by adopting an attitude of deference; courageous power such that saves a generation should be guarded by not forgetting fear; and riches encompassing all within the four seas should be guarded by practicing frugality.This is what is called the Way of withdrawing and decreasing (挹而损之).4“The Right-Hand Vessel” [宥坐], in Xunzi.The English translation of the citations from the Xunzi is based on John Knoblock’s version, with slight alterations.

With regard to these four respects, Confucius dwelt on self-cultivation in pursuit of the Way of decreasing for the purpose of achieving a state likechiman.The above-cited words are recorded both in theXunziandConfucius’s Family Discourses, with only minor differences in wording.

Differing from theXunziandConfucius’s Family Discourses, volume three ofHan Ying’s Miscellaneous CollectionpresentsConfucius’s answer to Zilu’s question differently,“the Way ofchimanlies in withdrawing and decreasing.” The record ofGarden of Anecdotesis the same as this, exceptfor usingthe characteryi挹 instead ofyi抑 in the former,which are two interchangeable characters in ancient Chinese literature.5Lu Yuanjun 卢元骏, ed., Garden of Anecdotes Annotated and Translated into Modern Chinese [说苑今注今译] (Taipei:Taiwan Commercial Press, 1977), 317.To Zilu’s further question “is there a way to practice decrease?” Confucius’s reply, as recorded inHan Ying’s Miscellaneous Collection, is:

Abundant moral conducts should be guarded by respectfulness; a vast expanse of land should be guarded by frugality; lofty rank and high salary should be guarded by humility;numerous strength and strong troops should be guarded by fear; brilliant intelligence and wisdom shoul d be guarded by the appearance of stupidity; and wide learning and a retentive memory should be guarded by the appearance of shallowness.This is what is called the Way of withdrawing and decreasing.As said in theBook of Songs, “Tangiwas born at just the right time and his wisdom and virtue advanced daily.”6Qu Shouyuan 屈守元, ed., Annotation and Subcommentary of Han Ying’s Miscellaneous Collection [韩诗外传笺疏],vol.3 (Chengdu: Bashu Publishing House, 1996), 314.

Here, Confucius talked about the practice ofchimanin six respects.That “brilliant intelligence and wisdom should be guarded by the appearance of stupidity” is close to the reply that “brilliant intelligence and sage-like knowledge should be guarded by the appearance of stupidity” recorded in theXunziandConfucius’s Family Discourses.The practice ofchimandepends on the virtue of humility.The eighth volume ofHan Ying’s Miscellaneous Collectionexpresses thesimilar idea.

Confucius said, “In theBook of Changes, the hexagram ofTongren同人 (comrades)comes before the hexagram ofDayou大有 (Great possession), which is followed by the hexagram ofQian谦 (humility), and is this arrangement not well-grounded?” Therefore,“It is the Way of Heaven to diminish the full and augment the humble.It is the Way of Earth to overthrow the full and replenish the humble.Spiritual beings infl ict calamity on the full and bless the humble.It is the Way of men to hate the full and love the humble.”7The English translation of the citations from the Book of Changes in this paper is based on James Legge’s version, with some alterations.The humility means withdrawing and decreasing.The Way ofchiyinglies in withdrawing and decreasing.This indicates the virtue of humility in conduct.What goes with it enjoys fortune, while what goes against it suffers misfortune.8Qu, Annotation and Subcommentary of Han Ying’s Miscellaneous Collection, vol.8, 742.

TheTongren,Dayou, andQianare three successive hexagrams in theBook of Changes,and the central idea conveyed by theDayouhexagram is of total fullness, maintaining and holding it, so that hexagram must necessarily be followed by theQianhexagram which concerns the practice of humility.

The answer given by Confucius to Zilu’s question is recorded in the “Respectfulness and Carefulness” chapter ofGarden of Anecdotesas follows:

Though lofty, one is able to lower himself; though full, one is able to empty himself; though wealthy, one is able to be frugal; though noble, one is able to be humble; though high in wisdom, one is able to appear stupid; though brave, one is able to appear timid; though eloquent, one is able to appear slow at speech; though erudite, one is able to appear shallow;though bright, one is able to appear dim.This is called decreasing to avoid going to extremes.This Way cannot be practiced unless by one of utmost virtue.TheBook of Changessays,“When it, already full, is not decreased but further increased, that will cause its destruction.When it decreases itself and always remains humble, that will bring to it increase.”9Liu Xiang 刘向, Garden of Anecdotes Collated [说苑校证], ed.Xiang Zonglu 向宗鲁 (Beijing: Zhonghua Book Company, 1987), 243.

In the above citation, Confucius expounded the practice ofchimanfrom nine viewpoints.The “decreasing to avoid going to extremes” means making active efforts to decrease so as to avoid being too full to the point of detriment and events taking a negative turn.It should be noted that the “when it, already full, is not decreased but further increased, that will cause its destruction.When it decreases itself and always remains humble, that will bring increase to it” is a sentence which is not found in the received version of theBook of Changes.

The Way ofchimanas laid forth by Confucius can be summarized as pursuing the spirit conveyed by theQianhexagram, and this, in essence, manifests itself as the Way of increasing and decreasing, which has much to do with the hexagrams for Decrease (Sun损) and Increase (Yi益).As the Way ofchiman, “withdrawing and decreasing” indicates“when it decreases itself and always remains humble, this will bring to it increase” and the dialectics of decrease leading to increase.In many historical documents completed in the Han dynasty, there are records of Confucius’s response to the two hexagrams of Decrease and Increase, and when Confucius expanded on the Way of decreasing and increasing, his purpose was usually aimed at admonishing a ruler more than anything else, clearly with a strong political orientation.10The piece titled “The Essentials” [要] in the silk manuscript of the Book of Changes unearthed from the Mawangdui Han tombs in 1973 also records Confucius’s comments on the two hexagrams of Decrease and Increase, but what is different is that Confucius there expounds upon these more from the viewpoint of the Way of Heaven.

To sum up, the idea of fullness (man满) in Confucius’schiman, actually, includes such aspects as brilliant intelligence and sage-like knowledge, meritorious achievements known nationwide, and courage that saves a generation, which are concerned with both natural endowment, gifts, talent as well as rank, emolument, and social status.According to Confucius, the Way ofchimanwith regard to these aspects is to guard them with by practicing stupidity, deference, and fear.These can be effectively summed up as withdrawing with humility and “decreasing” oneself.Thus, one can let himself or herself withdraw with humility and decrease his or her complacency and arrogance.What complacency, aloofness,self-importance, and haughtiness result in is sure to be nothing but failure.

The Way of Chiman in the Literature of Daoism and Other Schools of Thought [74]

Records of Confucius’s discourses on the Way ofchimanis also to be found in the “Responses of the Way” [道应训] chapter of theHuainanzi[淮南子], only that in this case, the wordchiyingis used instead ofchiman, and Zilu, the disciple standing beside Confucius on that occasion, has been changed to Zigong 子贡 (520—456 BCE).

Confucius was inspecting the ancestral temple of Duke Huan when he saw the inclining vessel on the right.He said, “Ah! It is so good to see this vessel here!” Turning to a disciple of his, he said, “Fetch some water.” Then, he had the disciple pour the water into the vessel and found that when half full, it kept upright, while when totally full, it overturned.Confucius, shifted his countenance and said, “Good! Is this notchiying?” Zigong, standing beside him on the occasion, asked his master, “May I ask aboutchiying?” Confucius replied, “It is the Way of withdrawing and decreasing (揖而损之).” Zigong asked further,“What does this mean?” Confucius answered, “A thing, after passing its zenith, is on the decline; extreme joy begets sorrow; the sun, after reaching the meridian, begins to set;and the moon, after waxing to the utmost, begins to wane.Therefore, brilliant intelligence and bright wisdom should be guarded by the appearance of stupidity; wide learning and broad knowledge should be guarded by shallowness;11In some editions of the Huainanzi, appearing in the place of the character lou 陋 (shallowness) here is jian 俭(frugality), but in the context, considering coherence, lou is more advisable.military prowess and brave fortitude should be guarded by fear; wealth, honor, and abundance should be guarded by frugality;12In some editions of the Huainanzi, appearing in the place of the character jian here is lou, but in the context,considering coherence, jian is more advisable.and meritorious achievements known nationwide should be guarded by deference.These fi ve respects are presented as the reason that former sage kings were able to preserve their rule of their states.In no case can one run counter to these fi ve respects is danger not incurred.” Therefore, Laozi said, “They who preserve this Way do not wish to be full [of themselves].It is through their not being full of themselves that they can afford to seem worn and not appear new and complete.”13Zhang Shuangdi 张双棣, Huainanzi Collated and Annotated [淮南子校释], vol.12 (Beijing: Peking University Press, 1997), 1324.The English translation of the citation from the Laozi is based on James Legge’s version, with slight alterations.

In this citation,yi揖 is interchangeable withyi抑, so 揖而损之 is the same conceptually as抑而损之.The citation beginning “a thing, after passing its zenith, is on the decline” till the end shows a high degree of overlap with the words cited below from “Nine Guardings” [九守]of theWenzi.

Laozi said, “When the Way of Heaven reaches an extreme, it begins to go in the opposite direction, and after fully waxing, both the sun and the moon begin to wane.Therefore,the sage decreases himself daily.Though vital energy fl ushes in himself, he never dares to claim himself as being full, and though he takes in what is the feminine, his meritorious achievement never declines.This indicates the Way of Heaven.It is human to make up to the high, the honorable, and the noble, and look down upon the low, the humble,and the lowly; and to like gain and advantage and dislike loss and disadvantage.Those that act so, fail to complete it, and because they seek it, they fail to gain it.Thus, the sage follows Heaven and, though doing nothing, he completes everything, and though seeking nothing, gains everything.He shares the same sentiments with all other people but differs from them in his Way, and therefore he can enjoy lasting success.

Therefore, each of the Three Sovereigns and Five Emperorsiikept their inclining vessels on the right, which keep upright when half full and overturn when totally full.A thing,after passing its zenith, is on the wane; the sun, after reaching the meridian, starts to set;the moon, after fully waxing, starts to wane; extreme joy gives rise to sorrow.Therefore,brilliant intelligence and broad wisdom should be guarded by the appearance of stupidity;wide learning and broad knowledge should be guarded by practicing frugality with them;military prowess and brave fortitude should be guarded by fear; expansive wealth, honor,and abundance should be guarded by minimizing them; and meritorious achievements known across the whole country should be guarded by deference.These fi ve respects are the reason why former kings preserved their states.‘They who follow this Way do not wish to be full [of themselves].It is through their not being full of themselves that they can afford to seem worn and not to appear new and complete.’”14Wenzi 文子, Wenzi Collated and Annotated [文子校释], vol.3, eds.Li Dingsheng 李定生 and Xu Huijun 徐慧君(Shanghai: Shanghai Classics Publishing House, 2004), 132—133.

The interesting fact here is that all that is said of the vessel is attributed to Laozi and in this record the vessel had nothing to do with the ancestral temple of Duke Huan of Lu or ofZhou, but was directly claimed as belonging to the Three Sovereigns and Five Emperors.Nonetheless, obviously, the “wide learning and broad knowledge should be guarded by frugality” does not make sense.This should have been rendered “wide learning and broad knowledge should be guarded by shallowness,” as is recorded in theHuainanzi, in which the “shallowness” means simplicity and plainness.On the whole, the logic and coherence of the above-cited paragraph does not compare with that cited from theHuainanzi.

Such ideas and expressions as likening the prosperity and decline of things to the rise and fall of the sun and the wax and wane of the moon were rather common in the pre-Qin period.For example, as recorded in “Discourses of Yue II” [越语下] inDiscourses of the States[国语], Fan Li 范蠡 (ca.536—448 BCE), minister of Yue, tried to persuade his king Gou Jian勾践 (d.465 BCE) by saying:

I have heard that, in ancient times, those good at using military forces took as principles the laws of stars rising and falling and the four seasons rotating, which never went beyond the celestial pole and stopped at the ultimate limit.The Way of Heaven is bright and clear and the operation of the sun and moon indicates the constant rule.When the sun and moon are bright, this can be regarded as the principle for advancing and when they turn dark, this can be seen as the signal for concealing.Whenyangreaches its extreme,yinbegins and whenyinreaches its extreme,yangbegins.Sunset is followed by sunrise and the moon, when waxing to the utmost, starts waning.

The “Purifying the Mind” [白心] chapter in theGuanzialso says,

When the sun reaches the zenith, it begins to decline, and when the moon gets total fullness, it begins to wane.As the zenith is the starting point of declining and the total fullness is the starting point of waning, the greatest extent indicates the beginning of extinction.Who can forget himself? Just follow the laws of Heaven and Earth.15Yan Changyao 颜昌峣, Guanzi Collated and Annotated [管子校释], vol.13 (Changsha: Yuelu Publishing House,1996), 340.

The idea that pleasure should not be carried to excess can also be found in “Utmost Virtue”[上德] of theWenzi16Wenzi, Wenzi Collated and Annotated, vol.6, 253.and the “Summary of the Rules of Propriety I” [曲礼上] in theBook of Rites[礼记].

In either of the above two parts cited from theHuainanziand theWenzirespectively,“they who preserve (follow) this Way do not wish to be full [of themselves].It is through their not being full of themselves that they can afford to seem worn (bi弊) and not appear new and complete” as is said in chapter fifteen oftheLaozigiven as a citation in these passages.In some editions of theLaozi, the character 弊 is written asbi蔽,17See Wang Ka 王卡, ed., Heshanggong’s Commentary of the Laozi [老子道德经河上公章句] (Beijing: Zhonghua Book Company, 1993), 59.which is conceptually close to “withdrawing and decreasing” as used by Confucius, which is indicative of Laozi’s idea on the Way ofchimanorchiying.What Laozi says in chapter nine is resonant with the aforementioned idea of his,

It is better to leave a vessel unfilled, than to attempt to carry it when it is full.If one keeps sharpening something to a point, the point cannot long preserve its sharpness.When gold and jade fi ll the hall, their possessor cannot keep them safe for long.When wealth and honors lead to arrogance, this brings its evil on itself.When the work has been done and one’s name has become distinguished, to withdraw into obscurity is the Way of Heaven.18Eastern Han Dynasty official-scholar Cai Yong 蔡邕 said, “Cherishing placidity, the mind guards loftiness, and pursuing inaction, the intention maintains fullness” (Collected Works of Cai Yong [蔡中郎集], “Explaining Regret”[释悔]).The infl uence of the thought of the Laozi on him here is clear.

A similar idea can be found in the “Purifying the Mind” chapter,

Arrogance and complacency are an utterly perilous display.One whose fame has fi lled the world had better stop hankering after more of it, for if he retires when he has become world-renowned, this indicates his going with the Way of Heaven.There is no offering to serve a state in its full heyday as an official, nor marrying a child into a family which is extremely prosperous, and nor making friends with someone who is surly, arrogant,and presumptuous.19Yan, Guanzi Collated and Annotated, vol.13, 345.

As far as the logical evolution of thought goes, what is said in theLaoziand theGuanzimay be seen as a refutation of Confucius’schiman.Of course, the notion of “fullness” can be understood as meaning self-conceit, arrogance, brutality, and extravagance.In this sense, it is close to Confucius’s idea ofchiman.It should be noted that Confucius does not advocate defi nitely the act of “withdrawing into obscurity” as emphasized in theLaoziand theGuanzi.

Many chapters in theGuanzitouch on the question ofchiman.The “Position and Situation” [形势] chapter, for example, says,

The reason one is able to maintain fullness is going with the Way of Heaven, and the reason one is able to stay safe and free from danger is complying with the mind of the people.If running counter to the law of Heaven, though enjoying fullness temporarily,one is bound to end up in a state of decrease, and if harmony is lost between the ruler and the ruled, though safe temporarily, one is sure to end up in a state of danger.20Yan, Guanzi Collated and Annotated, vol.1, 16.

His further explanation reads,

The Way of Heaven, though full, never overfl ows, and though fl ourishing, never declines.A sagacious ruler follows what the Way of Heaven displays, so though noble, he is not arrogant, and though rich, he is not extravagant.He acts in accordance with principles and is never indolent.Therefore, he can maintain his wealth and honor and rule the country for a long time without experiencing losses.Thus, I say “the reason for one maintaining fullness is going with the Way of Heaven.”21Yan, Guanzi Collated and Annotated, vol.20, 500.

As recorded in “Duke Ai, Eleventh Year” [哀公十一年] inZuo’s Commentary on the Spring and Autumn Annals[左传], Wu Zixu 伍子胥 (d.484 BCE), before committing suicide by royal order, exclaimed, “Am I, Wu, not about to perish? In three years the state will begin to show weakness.Anything that has reached its fullness, is sure to go on to be overthrown.This is the Way of Heaven.” TheGuanzicomments on the “Way of Heaven” in the sense that the operations of Heaven and Earth are eternal, producing and reproducing life in endless succession.The Way of Heaven in this sense is “egoless,” free from complacency,and thus it attains its greatness.By contrast, Wu Zixu speaks of the Way of Heaven in regard to concrete things, which are subject to both realization and destruction, so “when anything has reached its fullness, it is sure to go on to be overthrown” and by that reasoning,all prosperity must be followed by decline.

In early Chinese classics, we frequently see examples of the idea ofchiyingthat “[the Way of Heaven,] though full, never overfl ows, and though fl ourishing, never declines.” For example, “Nine Guardings” says,

Holding to the One demonstrates a small thing, but only by performing something small can greatness be attained.Doing nothing means no more than guarding stillness, but only by guarding stillness can one become upright in the world.When dwelling in greatness,though full, one should not overflow; when dwelling in highness, though noble, one should keep free from arrogance.Thus, there is neither overflowing when in greatness nor waning when in fullness, neither arrogance when in a lofty position nor danger when in a high one.It is because there is no waning when in fullness and no danger in a high position, that wealth and nobility can be preserved for a long time.22Wenzi, Wenzi Collated and Annotated, vol.5, 199—200.

This cited paragraph, especially the last few sentences, can also be roughly found in the“Princes and Dukes” [诸侯] chapter of theClassic of Filial Piety[孝经].On the basis of the above discussions and analyses, we know that Confucianism and Daoism come together in regard to the Way ofchimanand cultivating one’s moral character.

Awareness of Holding Fullness and Maintaining One’s Achievements among Han Dynasty Scholars and Magnates [77]

Confucius and other pre-Qin philosophers’ theories ofchimanexerted much infl uence on the ideological trends of the Han dynasty.In the opinion of Mao Heng 毛亨 in the late Qin and early Han dynasties, the theme of the “Wild-Ducks and Widgeons” [凫鹥] of “Major Odes” [大雅] in theBook of Songsdiscusses the Way to maintain existing achievements.He says, “When men of noble character in the era of peace and tranquility were capable of holding fullness and maintained their preceding achievements, the deities and their ancestors were delighted by them.”23Li Xueqin 李学勤, ed., Rectifi ed Interpretation of Mao’s Edition of the Book of Songs [毛诗正义], vol.17 (Beijing:Peking University Press, 1999), 1097.The “Originating in the Way” [原道训] chapter of theHuainanzisays,

Therefore, whoever has attained the Way is not fearful if poor, not glorious if advanced to dignity, not in danger if high in position, does not shine with new gains, and does not overturn when remaining full, does not change even when enduring for a long time, does not get scorched in a fi re, or wet when in water.24Zhang, Huainanzi Collated and Annotated, vol.1, 111.

This statement roughly synthesizes the basic ideas of Laozi and Zhuangzi.

The pre-Qin idea ofchimanis also refl ected in Han Dynasty interpretations of the Way of rites and music.The “Book of Music” [乐书] inRecords of the Grand Historian[史记] says,

When there is total fullness, without decrease, there will be overflowing, and where it cannot be maintained, it will be overturned.Thus, whoever composes music aims in the fi rst place to be moderate in regard to music.The man of noble character treats humility and withdrawal as a display of rites and decrease and reduction as the principle for composing music.This is the way by which music is created.

Therefore, the rites govern humility, while music governs fullness.By conducting rites with humility, one will strive to gain progress, which will be shown by progress; by playing music with fullness, one will turn back on the fullness, which will be introspection.If rites are performed without the prerequisite humility, they will almost disappear altogether; if music, is performed without introspection, it will produce a dissipation of the mind.

The Way of rites and music, which features humility and decrease, conveys the idea of maintaining fullness and self-cultivation.The “Praising the Worthy” [褒贤] chapter inDiscourses on Salt and Iron[盐铁论] gives several typical examples illustrating how to perform well according to the Way ofchiman:

Though totally full, one would never overfl ow, and though well poised, one would never be arrogant.Therefore, though Yuan Ang 袁盎 (d.148 BCE) was close to Emperor Jing of Han (r.157—141 BCE), his horses were but a team of four; though Gongsun Hong公孙弘 (200—121 BCE) took one of the three major ducal positions, serving his house were no more than ten carriages; though Dongfang Shuo’s 东方朔 (154—93 BCE) advice was always followed by Emperor Wu of Han (r.141—87 BCE), he never showed any arrogance to others.25Huan Kuan 桓宽, Discourse on Salt and Iron Collated and Annotated [盐铁论校注], ed.Wang Liqi 王利器 (Tianjin:Tianjin Classics Publishing House, 1983), 241.

Some ministers and senior officials of the Han dynasty were well versed in the Way ofchiman.Li Binghai is of the opinion that the Han dynasty literature reflected how the then senior officials and magnates conducted themselves in accordance with the Way ofchiyingmainly in two respects, one being self-effacement and the other self-denigration.According to him, since the Han dynasty official-scholars were able to maintain humility and fullness, they were inevitably going to adopt a positive and accepting attitude to enduring humiliation, and self-denigration was an extreme way of maintaining that humility, as a strategy for self-preservation.For example, on the surface it seemed that Cao Shen 曹参(d.190 BCE), a prime minister, pursued a policy of non-action, because he did not make any changes to the policies introduced by Xiao He 萧何 (d.193 BCE), his predecessor, but in fact that was a strategy of self-preservation undertaken to deal with the high pressure of serving under Empress Lü (241—180 BCE).This was also the strategy of Chen Ping 陈平 (d.178 BCE) who appeared indulgent in eating, drinking, and making merrily, neglecting his official duties, but actually, as Li Binghai notes, that secured himself for him his position as a prime minister, and what is more, created favorable conditions for wiping out the treacherous Lüs and reviving the House of Han, thus proving a successful example of the practice ofchiying.26Li Binghai, “On Fortune or Misfortune Subject to Changing and the Way of Maintaining Fullness: A Glimpse into the Life Philosophy Conveyed in the Han Dynasty Literature.”

Ancient historians, while recounting the biographies of the meritorious statesmen during the Han dynasty, tended to measure their merits in terms of their humility and practice ofchiman.In the “Yearly Table of the Officials Who Became Marquises since the Jianyuan Period” [建元以来侯者年表] in theRecords of the Grand Historianare listed many meritorious officials who were conferred with marquis status.Some majority of these,or their offspring, were self-satisfi ed, lordly, imperious, and ignorant of the Way ofchiman,thus they incurred fatal disaster.For example, not long after Huo Guang 霍光 (d.68 BCE)passed away, his son plotted treason and ended up bringing about the execution of his entire clan.Shangguan Jie 上官桀 (ca.d.80 BCE), when reaching his zenith in power, also ended up with his entire clan put to death for his plotting against the royal court.On the contrary,

Han Zeng 韩增 (d.56 BCE), Marquis of Longluo, who served as Front General and was known for being kind to common people, generous, and trustworthy, he never sought after political infl uence, but rather upheld the principles of conceding to and caring for other people.His ancestors can be traced to one of the six ministers of the state of Jin,and after he was installed as a ruler over his own fi efdom, he became a feudal lord, and his noble title and fi efdom were inherited by his descendants over generations for more than one hundred years to the making of this record.How can those officials who had made merits but failed to come to a good end compare with him? How lamentable! Later generations should indeed draw a lesson from this case.

Being kind to common people, generous, and trustworthy, and cherishing the principle of conceding to and caring for others are all essentials of practicingchiman.

The “Biography of Zhang Tang” [张汤传] in theHistory of the Former Han Dynasty[汉书]is a lengthy account of how the clan of Zhang Tang 张汤 (d.115 BCE) and Zhang Anshi张安世 (d.62 BCE), particularly the latter, practiced the principle ofchiman.Zhang Tang was a well-known cruel official of the Western Han dynasty, who later committed suicide after he was defeated amidst political strife.By contrast, his son Zhang Anshi was respectful,generous, and cautious, as well as being deeply conversant with the Way ofchiyingand the strategy of humility and withdrawal.He was conferred the noble title Marquis of Fuping by Emperor Zhao of Han (r.87—74 BCE), and he had the glory and prosperity of his clan carried onward for several generations.Historian Ban Gu 班固 (32—92) praises Zhang Anshi as being able to personify the Way of “maintaining fullness but not overfl owing.”

Emperor Guangwu (r.25—57) of the Eastern Han dynasty set great store by cultivating oneself according to the Way ofchiman.As recorded in the “Chronicles of Guangwu” [光武纪]in theHistory of the Later Han Dynasty[后汉书], in the twenty-sixth year of his reign, he cited from theClassic of Filial Pietyin an imperial edict aimed at his ministers, “when one in a high position is never arrogant, though high, he is free from danger, such is one who pursues moderation and practices the Way of fullness with no overflowing.” According to the “Biography of Fan Hong” [樊宏传] in theHistory of the Later Han Dynasty, the emperor’s maternal uncle Fan Hong 樊宏 (d.51) often warned his sons by saying:

If one’s wealth and rank overfl ow, he will never have a good ending.It is not that I do not like honor and position, but that the Way of Heaven loathes fullness and values humility.The distant relatives of previous generations all serve as good examples of this.Is it not joyful to preserve myself well?

Another example of historical figures who valued humility and withdrawal were Yin Shi阴识 (d.59) and Yin Xing 阴兴 (9—47), two younger brothers of Yin Lihua 阴丽华 (5—64),Empress to Emperor Guangwu.As recorded in the “Biography of Yin Shi” [阴识传] in theHistory of the Later Han Dynasty, Yin Xing once declined the noble title Emperor Guangwu’s intended to confer on him, saying,

I, your servant, have never earned any merit by going into battle and charging the enemy lines,but so many members of my clan have been conferred noble titles and land.This disappoints the hopes of the country and constitutes a case of reaching fullness and then overfl owing.

It is a pity that later on, most of the distant relatives of the House of Eastern Han demonstrated poor awareness of such principles of conduct, and turned out to be negative examples to future generations.

Closing Remarks [79]

For those who have achieved considerable success in their career, they should consider how to maintain their steady advancing momentum and avoid overturning or ending up in a state of failure or even total collapse.The Way ofchimanand strategy ofchiyingwere a common concern to Confucius, Laozi, and even all pre-Qin philosophers.The key to practicing self-cultivation in light of these ideas lies in making focused efforts to do away with negative features such as subjective self-importance, complacency, and arrogance, and to adhere always to an attitude of modesty and prudence.As a matter of fact, such a practice concerns a person’s cultivation and aspirations.Ultimately, anyone who is narrow-minded or short-sighted is liable to feel conceit at the least merit, and will fi nd it hard to attain any great accomplishment in their career.

Confucius offered his explication of the Way ofchimanafter having observed the vessel inclined to one side, which is upright when half-fi lled with water and overturns when totally full.The essential point of practicing self-cultivation according to this idea is to remain modest, keep a low-profi le and practice self-deprecation.Thus, by decreasing one’s “fullness,”one in fact manages to maintain a lasting fullness.Meanwhile, Confucius’s Way ofchimanhad much to do with the tenets of the hexagrams of Humility, Decrease, Increase, and even Infl uence (Xian咸) of theBook of Changes.

TheLaoziemphasized “not wishing to be full” and “affording to seem worn and not appear new and complete,” holding that “it is better to leave a vessel unfi lled than to attempt to carry it when it is full.” This means that one should never pursue absolute fullness in regard to material desire, wealth and rank, fame and merit, for he will not be able to attain the “Way” in spirit unless he decreases his material desire and stubborn pursuit of thesethings (this is what is meant by “the pursuit of the Way lies in decreasing daily”).This shares common ground with Confucius’s Way ofchiman.Yet, there are some differences between their interpretations, for theLaoziespecially stressed “withdrawing into obscurity” and retiring at the height of one’s official career.After attaining success, Fan Li went boating on rivers and lakes, and he embodied typically the outlook of life advocated by Laozi.

TheGuanzi, on the one hand, inherits the idea of “not wishing to be full” and “withdrawing oneself into obscurity” highlighted in theLaozi, and on the other, emphasizes that a sagacious ruler, while practicing governance, should follow the Way of Heaven, by which he“though full, never overfl ows, and though fl ourishing, never declines” and “though noble,is not arrogant, and though rich, is not extravagant,” so as to “maintain his wealth and honor and rule the state for a long time without losing them.” This conforms to Confucius’s interpretation of the results ofchiman, and to a considerable extent was discussed with regard to rulers as opposed to individual cultivation concerns.

In general, the ideas surroundingchimanupheld by the pre-Qin philosophers display a certain degree of convergence, which exerted much influence on the outlook of life prevalent among the official-scholars and magnates during the Han dynasty.The Way of conducting oneself and dealing with other people is expressed by Confucius as bearing fi rmly in mind that “humility brings benefi ts and pride incurs losses,” which was expressed in theLaozias striving to be “bright but not dazzling.” The influence of this philosophy of life was not only strongly felt in the Han dynasty but also more or less was inherited by later generations immersed in Chinese culture.Self-effacement and maintaining fullness have become key moral attainments and are representatives of the spiritual character of the Chinese people, which translate from the sphere of personal virtue to accomplishment in political matters as well.

Bibliography of Cited Translations

Knoblock, John, trans.Xunzi[荀子] (Chinese—English version).2 vols.Library of Chinese Classics [大中华文库].Changsha: Hunan People’s Publishing House; Beijing: Foreign Languages Press, 1999.

Legge, James, trans.Book of Changes.http://ctext.org/book-of-changes, accessed December 19, 2021.

— —.Laozi.http://ctext.org/dao-de-jing, accessed December 19, 2021.