陈起富
[摘 要]为让学生更好地了解、掌握和运用英语词块,教师可以给学生介绍词块的类别,但不宜介绍生涩难懂的词块术语,而应介绍简单易懂的词块分类:1.双词词块与多词词块;2.固定词块、半固定词块与非固定词块。对于非固定词块,可以让学生进行转换生成训练,使学生掌握多种表达方式,提高语言能力和英语学科核心素养。
[关键词]英语;词块;非固定词块;转换生成;训练
[中图分类号] G633.41 [文献标识码] A [文章编号] 1674-6058(2020)28-0030-04
Becker(1975)最早对词块(lexical chunks,或称语块)进行了专门的研为人类语言的记忆和存储、输出和使用并不是以单个的词为单位,那些固定和半固定的模式化了的板块结构(词块)才是人类进行语言交际的最小单位[1]。Nattinger和DeCarrico(1992)指出,词块是“介于词汇和句子之间的模式化短语”。而Wray(2002)提出,词块是“作为整体储存和使用的词语程式” [2]。王立非(2007)指出,词块就是预制好且被频繁使用的多个词的组合,这种词汇组合有自己特定的结构和相对稳定的意思,它以整体形式被记忆储存,并在即时交际时被整体提取,不需要使用语法规则进行加工分析[3]。王佩娜(2008)认为,词块是语言使用者在语言输入和输出过程中频繁使用的,具有特定语义和结构并以固定或者半固定形式存在的,有利于提高语言生成能力的短语、固定搭配、习惯用语或句式[3]。从各种定义看,词块具有这些特征:形式与功能相对应的词的组合,固定和半固定的相对稳定的模式,具有语言生成能力和语用功能而被频繁使用的语言半成品。
一、词块的简易分类与非固定词块的提出
虽然是Becker最早进行词块研究的,但词块教学法(lexical approach)的创始人却是Lewis(1993)。他根据词汇内部的语义联系和句法功能,将词块分为四类:①多词词块,即由两个以上单词组成的固定短语,如in a word、on the contrary;②高频搭配,即习惯搭配,如coach potato、as far as I am concerned;③惯用话语,指形式固定或半固定、具有固定语用功能的单词组合,如catch a cold、 how are you;④句子框架和引语,即半固定表达,但仅指书面语词汇且作篇章组织手段,如“learn by doing ...”“help yourself to some ...”等[3]。
而Nattinger和DeCarrico(1992)则从结构和功能角度对词块作了分类:聚合词(如look forward to、by the way等使用时不能改变形式的短语)、惯常的表达形式(如 “Practice makes perfect. ” “How are you? ” 等多数不改变形式的谚语、格言和社交公式话语)、短语限制结构(如 “a week/month/year ago” “have breakfast/lunch/dinner ” 等框架式短语)和句子构造成分(如 “I think that ...” “not only ... but also ...” “It seems to me that ...” 等为句子提供框架的词汇短语)[4]。
从教学的角度看,中学生是英语的学习者,任务就是输入(听、读、背记)、存储、输出(搜索、提取)和使用(说、写、译)英语词块,没必要去掌握生涩难懂的词块术语。因此,不宜向他们介绍高频搭配、聚合词、短语限制结构、句子构造成分等令人费解的词块术语,而应该考虑词块教学的实用性,对词块作简单易懂的分类,以帮助学生掌握词块。
首先,可以按单词数量的多寡将词块划分为双词词块(如concentrate on、for free、as usual)和多词词块(如as well as、 go to the devil等由三个和三个以上单词构成的词块)。平常所说的“意群”就是单词较多的多词词块。
其次,可以按固定性来给词块分类。各种词块定义中的“模式化短语”“词语程式”“习惯搭配”“惯用话语”“句子框架”“惯常表达形式”和“句子构造成分”等指的是词块的固定性。实际上,词块也有不固定的、临时组合的。Nattinger(1992)认为英语的自然话语中有90 %是由预制词块构成的[2]。但这些词块并非全是固定或者半固定的词块,其中相当一部分是临时组合而生成的非固定词块。所以,根据固定程度,词块可作如下分类:
1.固定词块,指使用时不能改变其中任何单词词形的词块。包括:
(1)独立成分,如believe it or not、to be honest、whats more、 heart and soul等。
(2)名人名言、格言、谚语、俗语和歇后语,如“Knowledge is power.”“Love me, love my dog.” “An apple a day keeps the doctor away.”“Where theres a will, theres a way.”[5]等。
(3)社交套語(社交公式话语),如 “How do you do? ” “Nice to see you.” “Lovely day, isnt it? ”“Can/May I help you? ” 等。
(4)典故词块、俗成词块和专有名词词块,如a cats paw、 black tea(红茶)、 Xinhua News Agency、 South China Sea等。
2.半固定词块。包括:
(1)变形定意词块,指使用时要根据不同时态、语态、语境、人称、数、格等方面的要求对个别单词的词形作出相应调整、变化但不改变原意的词块。
(2)换词变意词块,指个别单词固定不变而其他单词变换之后改变了意思但仍被整体使用的固定性、框架性较强的词块,如look ahead、 look after、 look at、 look down upon、 look forward to、 look into等。
(3)框架词块,指根据表达内容的需要只在框架内填入词语即可的词块, 如“not so much ... as ...”“not only ... but also ...”“ more ... than ...”“ either ... or ...”等。
(4)句型,如“No sooner ...than ...”“Hardly ...when ...”“Its time to/for ...”等。
3.非固定词块。指随时随地即景表达生成的词块,或将半固定词块灵活地转换、替换、添加成分之后组合而成的即时性、生成性强的词块。较长的非固定词块可以把固定词块和半固定词块包含在内,例如“delicious food”“the parts of a machine”“a harmful food additive”“a world of various flowers”“go on a trip/a tour/an outing/a hike/an outdoor activity/a walk around the lake”等。以下画线部分的短语都属于非固定词块:
(1) Seen from the mountain top, the village looks like a spot.(过去分词短语)
(2) She made up her mind to thoroughly clean the guest room.(不定式短语)
(3) He stood alone in the open air, expecting to watch the brightly burning meteors.(现在分词短语)
(4) Not having been chosen as monitor, he was disappointed and angry. (完成被动式现在分词短语)
(5) Hungry and thirsty, they couldnt go any further.(形容词短语)
(6) Is there any interesting news home and abroad today?(副词短语)
(7) A strange voice came from behind the wall.(介词短语)
二、固定词块与非固定词块的优点
词块在英语教学中一直備受关注,教师也注重学生对词块的实践运用,只不过提到词块,不少师生使用的是词组、短语、固定搭配、习惯用法和惯用语等不同的称谓。国内学者从不同角度出发,对英语语块教学进行了研究。杨玉晨(1999)提到英语“板块”结构的语用功能;肖福寿(2000)提出“词型”也是一种词汇搭配,或一种语块;吴静、王瑞东(2002)认为词块是一种理想的词汇记忆模式[2]。词块确实有许多优点:
1.句型框架方面。从词汇层到句子层,词块成分之间在结构上的间断性增大,即词块内部可供语用变化的空间越来越大,为创造性地使用词汇提供了更大的空间[1]。
2.语法教学方面。词块被整体学习并储存在记忆中,使用时可直接提取,无须花费太多时间去根据语法规则来遣词造句。
3.文化知识方面。学习相关词块不仅可以提高学生语言表达形式上的正确性,还可以帮助学生储备相关的文化知识方面的素材和观点[3]。
4.阅读理解方面。词块作为语法、语义和语境的综合体,同时具有整体性的特征和一定的语篇功能,学习词块有助于加快对文章的解码速度,提高阅读效率,同时有助于阅读图式的积累和提取,实现阅读技能的自动化[6]。
5.语篇写作方面。词块是语篇功能与语篇意义的结合,经大量记忆、理解、联想、串联,可加快思维、搜索、再现、选择、提取词语的整个认知过程,加速语篇组织和整合,提高英语写作的流利性、准确性、地道性、生动性和有效性[4]。
6.综合能力培养方面。积累词块可扩大词汇量,有利于对语言的输入、记忆、存储和输出,加强学生听、说、读、写的综合能力[3];词块是语言的预制板块,是语言的半成品,可以作为储存和输出的理想单位,并在听、说、读、写能力培养方面起到积极作用[7]。
非固定词块(包括半固定词块)除了以上优点外,还有更突出的优点:生成性强,可临时组合、转换更替、灵活运用、随景表达;包容性大,可纳入、添加多种成分(包括固定词块);扩展性高,可从多词词块扩展到更多词的意群、从句。下文的各种转换生成训练就可以反映出非固定词块的这些优点。
三、非固定词块的转换生成训练
尽管乔姆斯基(Chomsky)以语言的人脑先天生物性为出发点于1957年提出并经过随后几十年研究、补充和修改的转换生成语法(普遍语法)未在多大程度上得到认可[8],但其“转换生成”的方法、手段可以被借用来进行语言实验研究、实践运用和教学运用。针对非固定词块、半固定词块都可以进行多种方式的转换生成训练,让学生掌握多种表达方式,提高语言能力,提升英语学科核心素养。
1.结构互换训练。例如:
(1) I am honoured to make the great scientists acquaintance. ? I am honoured to make the acquaintance of the great scientist.
(2) Do you know anyone with a mental or physical disability? ? Do you know anyone mentally or physically disabled?
(3) This merchant is in possession of the controversial Impressionist painting. ? The controversial Impressionist painting is in the possession of this merchant.
其他的还有“honestly speaking ? to be honest”“What is known to all is that ... ? It is known to all that ...”等等。
(4) 從句 ? 词块(短语)
Because she is monitor, she should set up a good example. ? Being monitor, she should set up a good example.
If there is a concert in our city next week, our guests will stay here. ? There to be a concert in our city next week, our guests will stay here.
We noticed lots of the villagers who were seated in the back of the classroom. ? We noticed lots of the villagers seated in the back of the classroom.
(5) 单词 ? 词块
Amy gives various answers to such a complicated question. ? Amy gives a variety of answers to such a complicated question.
Changbaishan is home to diverse rare plants and animals. ? Changbaishan is home to a great diversity of rare plants and animals.
2.同义词块替换训练。例如:
She has been so absorbed in/involved in/wrapped in/lost in her research that she hasnt had time for social activities. → She has devoted herself so much to/applied herself so much to/applied her mind so much to her research that she hasnt had time for social activities.
3.反义词块替换训练。例如:
(1) George Hambley is opposed to the view that high levels of carbon dioxide in the air will cause serious results. → George Hambleythe view that high levels of carbon dioxide in the air will not cause serious results.
(2) Zhou Yang didnt accept professional training in photography. → Zhou Yang just course of photography.
参考答案:(1)subscribes to/agrees to; (2) took an amateur
4.异义词块替换训练。例如:
(1) I was sorting out my accommodation. →
I was sorting out (屋里凌乱的衣物).
I was sorting out (从不同火山口采集来的熔岩样品).
参考答案:the messy clothing in the room;the lava samples collected from different volcano craters
(2)He decided to seize the opportunity and set about applying for a patent. →
He decided to seize the opportunity and (着手寻找一个合适的帮手).
He decided to seize the opportunity and (成立一个专门委员会来调查此事件).
He decided to seize the opportunity and (寫下所见所闻呈给法庭).
参考答案:set out to look for a suitable assistance;set up a special committee to look into the affair;set down what he had seen and heard to show it to the court
5.词块模仿替换训练。例如:
(1)Gardeners often take cuttings from growing plants to make new ones. → The couple (正给活茶树剪枝) to make new ones.
参考答案:are taking cuttings from growing tea trees
(2)Cloning also happens when twins identical in sex and appearance are produced from the same original egg. → Madison abruptly found two , (大小、形状和高度几乎一样的胡桃树).
参考答案:walnut trees almost identical in size, shape and height
6.添加扩充成分训练,把非固定、半固定词块往更多单词的意群、句子方向拓展。例如:
一架二手钢琴 a second-hand piano →
叔叔送我一架二手钢琴。My uncle sent me a second-hand piano. →
我生日那天叔叔送我一架新钢琴。On my birthday my uncle sent me a new piano. →
那天叔叔送我一架新钢琴作为生日礼物。That day my uncle sent me a new piano as a birthday present.
7.课文词块活用训练。例如抽取最新人教版高中英语必修5的课文“First Aid for Burns”中的重要或常用词块(包括固定词块)“act as a barrier against ...” “a variety of ...”“depending on ...”“around the edge of ...”“squeeze ... out”“in place”“cause infection”“sit up”“It is vital to ...”等让学生进行口头或书面造句,或用于对课文进行的复述、改写、缩写、归纳大意、填空等,或用来叙述事件、编构故事,作为“Post-reading Task”来巩固知识、加强语篇生成训练。
8.词块语篇生成训练。运用非固定、半固定词块的“支架”功能把单词连成语句并生成语篇。例如要求学生用必修1 Unit 5中的out of work、 as a matter of fact、 blow up、 in trouble、 turn to、 lose heart、 come to power、 set up、 be sentenced to等词块来叙述一件事,或运用合理想象编个故事,或议论一件事,进而生成语篇。
参考答案:As a department manager, Mr. Black worked hard and wanted to earn more money to support a family of five: old parents, sick wife, a child and himself. So he suggested the company reform and set up a new system to raise the staffs pay. After his suggestion was turned down, he tried every means to realize his dream of coming to power in the company. As a result, almost everyone disliked him. At last he was so angry as to threaten to blow up the managers office. As a matter of fact, he didnt do that. But what he said was serious so that he was sent to the police and might be sentenced to a certain amount of time in prison. Although he was freed one week later, he was out of work and made his family deep in trouble. To his familys delight, Mr. Black didnt lose heart. He turned to his friends and other relatives, to run a business of his own.
英語非固定词块的转换生成训练是词块教学的重要手段,在英语教学中应多采用。它可以提高词汇复现率,帮助学生扩大词汇量、加快词汇的输出、增强阅读理解能力,可谓好处多多。英语学科的备课、教学、课堂活动安排、作业布置、知识复习巩固和学习策略指导等方面都应考虑词块的积极运用。
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(责任编辑 周侯辰)