摘 要:阅读和写作是密不可分的两种能力。本文结合实例,浅谈读后写作对初中生语篇理解能力的促进作用,并通过调查和访谈验证了这种教学方式的价值和意义。教师设计针对文本特点的读后写作形式,包括仿写、缩写、续写、自由写作等,不仅能激发学生的学习兴趣,同时也让学生通过自己的作品展示了其对文本的理解程度以及构思表达的能力。为了写作的规范性,教师也要作好相关铺垫,指导学生用“论证的一般结构”表达自己的观点。有时教师需对文本进行创造性地使用,使其更有利于学生的准确阅读和读后写作。
关键词:读后写作;准确阅读;语篇理解能力
当今越来越多的教师开始重视阅读,可是如何让学生的阅读更有效并实现准确阅读的目标呢?Fitzgerald 和Shanahan(2000)根据心理学界对大量实证研究的元分析结果,归纳出“阅读”和“写作”是密不可分的两种能力,并依据两者的区别、联系和互动提出了关于“读写能力”的互动发展。在理性分析两者的联系与区别的基础上,他提出了关于“阅读”和“写作”的历时动态发展模型(development model)。写作是对阅读的模拟,写作过程也是对阅读的模拟过程。
能够准确阅读是评判好读者的标准之一。Richard L. Allington和Rachael E. Gabriel(2018)调查发现,孩子阅读内容的程度与理解内容的程度呈现正相关关系。只有当读者能够准确阅读某篇素材98%以上的内容时,此次阅读行为才会发生作用(参见“CERA中阅院播种阅读”)。
阅读后的写作是一个非常有效的促进准确阅读的过程,是一个人在构建和输出自己的一些见解。如果学生在阅读素材以后能够自由发挥地写点东西,那是非常有意义的。阅读是输入,写作是输出,两者紧密相连。
写作是另一种帮助读者练习阅读技巧和策略的方式。当学生写下他们想写的内容时,他们会考虑哪些词语能够准确地将自己的想法表达出来;他们也必须确保所用标点符号的准确性,以帮助读者理解哪些词是在一起的、自己的情感是怎样的,等等;同时,他们也必须考虑文本结构的搭建,而这整个过程对学生的理解能力有很大帮助。
阅读让学习者产生一定的心理状态,而这个心理过程就涉及意义理解。
让学生参与认知复杂型任务(为达到准确阅读的各种活动)的最终目的是给他们提供机会,以生成新的结论并证明其结论(通过阅读建构自己的观点)(马扎诺,2018)。结构良好的论证包括“理由”“论据”和“限制条件”。“理由”代表第一层证据,“论据”代表第二层证据,“限制条件”表明学生对自己主张的确定性程度。最终,这些成分一起运作构成了一个完整体,即有逻辑结构的语篇。这一整套技能(主张—理由—论据—限制条件)中的典型技能是生成和维护“主张”,每个学生都应该知道这种论证结构(写作结构)(见图1)。
论证结构有助于学生有逻辑、有理有据地表达,让文章具有语篇的基本特征。语篇应有一个论证结构或逻辑结构,句子之间有一定的逻辑关系。语篇中的话段或句子都是在这一结构的基础上组合起来的(黄国文,1997)。
根据文本的不同特点,教师可以组织学生尝试不同形式的读后写作。学生可以用写作的论证结构来表达自己对文本的理解,来体现其思维的变化。
1.仿写
仿写有多种形式,如句子仿写、段落仿写、内容仿写和结构仿写。仿写的主要目的是让学生巩固和使用语言素材的内容或结构,在使用中吸收语言。
[案例]
If and When were planted, and nothing grew是一篇用举例法来证明观点的文章(见表1)。文章前三段分别举了三个例子:Karen 不喜欢自己的房子,想等度假回来再换房子;Sam讨厌他的工作,他总说等自己参加的摄影课程结束了就换工作;Harry因身体不支总想提前退休,公司也同意了,但他担心退休金会少。一年以后他们三人还保持原状,生活没有任何改变。第四段和第五段点出了主题“光说不做,不播种,不收获”。
上课时,教师首先让学生讨论如何理解“If and When were planted, and nothing grew.”这一谚语,导入话题。精读环节让学生通过标注段落对文本有个宏观认识,之后两个人一组讨论每段的精彩表达(Beautiful expressions),并针对每段内容各提出一个问题(Questions)。在讨论完后,学生把表达和问题写在黑板上教师提前设计好的两个思维导图中(见图2),然后用思维导图梳理整个文本中好的表达方式,并回答问题,实现对文本的深入理解。写作部分教师让学生讨论作者的写作目的以及为了实现写作目的作者是如何做的。学生总结出作者使用了“举例子”的方法,教师接着让学生再举一个生活中的例子,与同伴讨论并写下来,然后用多媒体展示学生作品。如图3所示学生作品,共包含两个自然段,第一段介绍了学生自己读书的实例,第二段点明文章中心句“Life is too short for ifs and whens”。
2.縮写
读后缩写的活动设计与读后改写的有些相似,其训练和考查的也是学生对文本主旨大意和文本结构的理解能力。和改写活动相比,缩写活动更要求学生对文本的关键性信息处理得体到位,需要学生在反复研读文本后用极具概括性的语言形式来完成。同时,在缩写的过程中,学生只有抓住作者的观点和立场,明确其态度,才能用简短精辟的语言来表达写作者的意图。
对于故事情节较长且生动、语言丰富的文章或是小说,教师就可以让学生缩写。缩写时学生既要关注文章的内容,又要组织语言,从而达成对文本准确、深入的理解。
[案例]
外研版《英语》(新标准)九年级上册Module 7 English for you and me课文Who Owns English?共有五个段落,分别介绍了英语使用群体、占世界人口四分之一的人说英语的原因、英语的发展历史、英语与中国的关系,最后一段回答了“Who owns English?”这个问题。这篇文章较为抽象,教师让学生用思维导图梳理文章脉络,通过缩写提取文章主要信息(见图4)。3.续写
读后续写不仅是对学生思维扩展的训练,还可以进一步促进学生写作中的语言运用、段落安排、内容编排等能力,因为续写不太受原素材的限制,是限定写作向自由写作的过渡。在这样的写作活动中,学生可以发挥想象,尽情地享受创作的乐趣。
[案例]
Never too late講述的是一位老太太坚持梦想,拼搏奋进,最终考上大学的故事。文章约350词,故事情节简单,但非常激励人心,语言亮点较多且包含了很多人生感悟,是一篇非常值得欣赏的作品。但由于文章包含的哲理性话语较多,会对学生造成一定的理解困难,因此课堂上教师会通过问题引导和组织小组合作的方法突破其理解障碍,帮助学生理解文本内容。
为了实现精准理解文本、总结文本写作目的、完成读后续写的教学目标,教师将原有文本作了如下修改:
(1)原文标题为Never too late,教师想要设计一个让学生给文本配标题的活动,故删除了原文本标题。
(2)原文本老人的演讲是一个很长的段落,演讲中提到的“四个秘诀”界限不明晰,比较影响学生阅读效率,因此将四个秘诀单独列出。
(3)文本最后一段写的是“老人大学毕业后一周去世了,超过两千多名大学生参加了她的葬礼”,最后一句点明本文中心“never too late”。因为教师已经设计了给文本配标题的任务,且作业设计的是 What would happen to the old lady next?基于以上两个任务,教师删除了文本最后一段。
修改后的文章,文本结构比较规范。四个段落的核心主题分别为:an old lady, a dream, a time machine, a speech and four secrets(见表2)。
这样,学生展开了想象的翅膀:有的学生写老太太毕业后成为一名老师;还有的学生说老太太成为职业演讲家,每年有多场演讲,把自己的成长故事跟更多的人分享;还有的学生细致描写了大学毕业演讲之后老太太途中遇到交通事故,但在住院期间她坚持写作,将自己的经历写成了书……(见表3)。
4.自由写作
自由写作是较常见的一种写作活动。在阅读教学中,自由写作有助于学生反复通读文本,对有价值的信息进行整合、重构,并能与自己先前的知识背景联系起来,对读到的各种信息进行识别、梳理和归纳,重建文本的结构框架,或者针对文本内容形成自己的观点等。
[案例1]
2018年北京市丰台区九年级一模阅读理解D篇是一篇议论文(见附文),主要讲述男女同在一个队训练能使女孩stronger, tougher, faster and more powerful,可以提高女孩的技能和自信,而且能避免性别刻板印象。读后写作题目为:Would you like to play sports with boys / girls on the same team? And why?学生需要准确理解文本,用文本中的信息来表达自己的观点,达到真正使用语言的目的。
[案例2]
2017年北京市西城区九年级二模阅读理解D篇Books vs. e-books: The science behind the best way to read(见附文),作者客观地论述了人们对电子书和纸制书所持的不同观点:有的人认为电子书携带方便,甚至能轻松拥有整个图书馆的书籍;有的人喜欢纸质书,认为读纸质书可以提高记忆力,尤其对睡眠、视力不好的人来说读纸质书更有利。但作者在文末并没有表达自己的观点。学习完这篇文章后,给学生设计的写作题目是:Books and E-books, which one do you prefer? And why?读后写作为学生提供了一个将所学内容与自己的生活、学习、思维联系在一起的机会。
[案例3]
2017年北京市东城区九年级二模阅读理解D篇Do Schools Have the Right to Monitor students Online Activity?(见附文),文章第一段提出问题:某学生因在社交媒体发布不得体言论遭到学校的干涉。接着作者分别列出了两名记者和两名老师的观点,他们有的不同意学校监控学生的社交媒体,认为这是侵犯个人隐私;有的表示支持,认为这样可以避免校园欺凌,而且社交媒体本来就是公开的,学校监督也不是侵犯个人隐私。最后作者表达了自己的观点:为了避免学生在社交媒体发表不得体的议论、产生不良后果,学校还是有权监控的。课后写作题目是:Do you think schools have the right to monitor students online activity? 学生在完成写作的同时既能对文本内涵进行深入挖掘,又能把自己的观点融入写作中。
通过读后写作,学生能够深入了解文本的意义,同时学生的批判性思维也得到了培养。读后写作让学生学会了质疑、思考和判断,这就是阅读带来的真正价值和意义(郑钢,2019)。
反馈(feedback)是在教师和学生之间建立起信息闭环,能够帮助学生了解自己的学习情况(马扎诺,2018)。对于“读后写作是否有利于学生对语篇的精准理解”,笔者进行了三个维度的调查:
1.读后写作对阅读习惯的影响
通过对46名学生进行多选问卷调查(见表4)不难看出,因为有读后写作的任务驱动,学生的阅读习惯发生了很大变化。在阅读中更多的学生愿意圈画或记录有用的短语或句型;在阅读中会自然地将文本内容与自己的实际情况联结在一起,产生自己的观点,从而为读后写作打下基础。此外,由于写作时还会用到文本中的内容,很多学生会主动再次阅读文本,这必然会加深其对文本的理解。读后写作促使学生形成重读文本、深度理解文本的阅读习惯。
2.读后写作对阅读主动性的影响
针对读后写作对学生的主动阅读是否有影响这一问题,笔者设计了如下访谈:
你觉得写作可以促使你去阅读吗?如果可以,你最喜欢哪种写作方式(续写、仿写、缩写、自由写作)?
在被调查的46名学生中,有32名学生认为写作可以促使自己去阅读。这32名学生中大多数学生表现出对自由写作更感兴趣,而不太喜欢缩写(见图5)。这是因为自由写作可以比较全面地表达自己的观点。
3.读后写作对后续英语学习的影响
写作在一定程度上可以算作是阅读的终点。语篇理解能力其实关乎三件事:第一是在众多的信息中能找到、甄別和确定所需要的信息,这就是所谓的信息收集能力;第二是能够结合个体的经验和情况,与文本开展对话,挖掘文本所蕴含的意义;第三是生成属于自己的思想、观点、文字等,是一种应用和创新的能力(郑钢,2019)。当学生形成一定的阅读习惯和阅读素养后,教师可以为他们后续更有难度的学习提供方法论支持,帮助他们完成更复杂的任务。
通对学生阅读习惯和阅读主动性的调查,笔者发现读后写作在一定程度上激发了学生的阅读兴趣、提高了学生的阅读理解能力。学生从写作到阅读迁移的过程中,是通过词与词、句与句之间的连接,用段落的形式传达自己的观点。这种从文章整体出发、以语篇单位为基础,对文章进行分析、推理、归纳和总结的写作思维过程,反过来影响了学生在阅读中对语篇的分析能力和理解能力。读后写作以写为出发点、以读为落脚点,符合学生语言学习认识和心理发展的规律,有利于促进学生写作和阅读思维的发展。
读后写作如同帮学生提高语篇理解能力的“法”,当这种“法”成为他们的习惯的时候,就形成了“道”,这种“道”就是阅读素养。阅读和写作中要以“道”引路,以“法”行路(郑钢,2019)。这种思路适用于读小说、传记、历史、科学等多种文本。
参考文献
CERA中阅院播种阅读. Allington和Gabriel专门进行了一项阅读指导研究总结出学生每天必接受的6项指导[J/OL].(2012-3)[2018-4-10]. https:// baijiahao.baidu.com/s?id=1597240384199590252& wfr=spider&for=pc
Fitzgerald, J. & Shanahan, T. 2000. Reading and Writing Relations and Their Development [J]. Educational Psychologist, 35(1): 39—50
韩银燕. 2004.新课程背景下高中英语阅读教学策略的调整[J]. 现代中小学教育, (5): 28—29
黄国文. 1988.语篇分析概要[M].湖南:湖南教育出版社.
罗伯特·J.马扎诺. 2018.新教学艺术与科学[M].盛群力等译.福州: 福建教育出版社.
郑钢. 2019.怎样让学生爱上阅读[M]. 上海: 华东师范大学出版社.
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倪文娟,北京市骨干教师,北京师范大学朝阳附属学校英语教研组长。
2018年北京市丰台区九年级一模阅读理解D篇
There is an argument about whether or not boys and girls should be able to play sports on the same team. This can be a particularly tricky argument, but in the end, the benefits of coed (男女同校) sports outweigh any negative aspects.
“It is a well-known fact that boys are built to be stronger and bigger than girls. However, that does not mean that girls are too fragile (易碎的) to play sports with boys,” says Madeline R. Shes right. Boys are naturally built to be stronger, but girls can still compete with boys. In 2013, over 1,500 girls played boy football, and some were the best on their team.
Both boys and girls can gain skills from playing with and against the opposite gender (性別). A girl playing sports with boys will help the girl improve, making her stronger, tougher, faster, and more powerful as an athlete than she would have been playing with girls. Boys can also gain new skills from girls, becoming more agile and flexible (灵活的).
Playing in coed sports might not be for every girl; some might be more comfortable playing sports with the same gender. But for the girls that have the physical ability, sports skills, confidence, and desire to compete with boys should have the choice to play coed. During an interview, Katie Smith, a Womens National Basketball Association (WNBA) star, talked about how she always played with boys when she was young. She recognized early on that boys provided her with the best competition to improve her skills.
There are many social benefits, too. According to Laura E. Berk, a child psychologist, sometime kids aged between 9 and 11 will begin to develop gender stereotypes (性别刻板印象). Playing coed sports can help prevent gender stereotypes, and learning to view the opposite gender as a friend and not something frightening is something that can be useful throughout life.
It increases a girls confidence level, too. Letting girls compete with boys enhances their view of themselves and makes them more flexible. “Sports for girls have many benefits, including better grades, better body image, less depression and a higher chance of graduating from high school,” says Leigh R. Shes right, and the improvement in all of these areas will increase if girls can play with and against boys.
These are all reasons why boys and girls should be able to play sports together on the same team. While it might not be for everyone, there are definitely people out there that are looking to improve their game, and coed sports is an excellent way to do that.
2017年北京市西城区九年级二模阅读理解D篇
Books vs. e-books: The science behind the best way to read
While you are at the bookstore, you may be faced a difficult decision: e-books or the old-fashioned kind? Each one has its pros and cons, and making the best decision depends on a number of factors (因素).
Some of the practical advantages of going digital are obvious: An e-reader can carry a whole library wherever you go, which is great for travelers or those who always want a choice of reading material. On the other hand, research shows that reading on paper has a number of benefits, too. Some people absolutely love the look, smell, and the feel of the classical book held in the hand. Other people may be adventurous when it comes to digital things, and so giving the gift of an e-reader can be a life experience for them.
Heres a look at some of the science to consider before you buy a kindle or some new hand covers.
Young, unwilling readers prefer e-readers
A 2014 study published in the journal Library & Information Science Research found that out of 142 10th grade students, most preferred e-readers. An e-reader has more in common with the electronic devices (設备) that young people use all the time, like smart phones or iPads, than a paper book.
Reading on paper may improve memory
Several small studies suggest that reading on paper instead of an electronic screen is better for memory and focus. When you read on paper you can sense with your fingers a pile of pages on the left growing, and shrinking (减少) on the right. You have the visible sense of progress. Perhaps this somehow helps the reader as they progress through the story.
Paper suits readers with sleep problems and poor eyesight
High levels of screen brightness from an electronic device can cause eye problems. There are also possible considerations for those reading e-books at night. Artificial light (人造光源) from e-readers may interfere with users ability to sleep, leading to health problems and tiredness the following day.
A love for books
Many books-lovers still prefer traditional books and value the feeling of a regular paper book. Paper books are, as a rule, very well designed, they look and smell good, and they carry with them a more human touch. In the end, avid (热衷的) readers prefer reading on paper. Perhaps, this is their choice because traditional books give them a sense of ownership, rather than just simply using something.
2017年北京市东城区九年级二模阅读理解D篇
Do Schools Have the Right to Monitor (监控) Students Online Activity?
When you post a message on a social networking site, you probably dont expect your teacher or schoolmate to read it. A 12-year-old girl in Minnesota didnt expect that, either. She wrote an angry message about a classmate on her Facebook page. When teachers read that and other inappropriate (不恰当的)messages written by the student, the school ordered her to give them her password. This is one of several recent cases (案例) in which schools have punished students for bad online behaviour outside of school.
Akash Bagaria, a reporter of Current Events doesnt think schools have the right to monitor what students do online outside of school. “It is an invasion (侵犯) of privacy and breaks the freedom of speech. Imagine teachers checking students mobile phones or spying on (窥探)their after-school conversations. Tracking (追踪) students on the Internet is basically the same thing. ”
Maria Shepard, a teacher at Princeton Day School in New Jersey, agrees, “If the communication tool is not school-owned and is not being used at school, schools should not monitor a students online activity...If a serious problem happens, the students parents could manage it.”
Joseph Manne, another reporter of Current Events believes schools have the right to monitor students online activity.“Inappropriate online activity often comes in the from of cyberbullying (網络欺凌). Fourteen states have passed laws against cyberbullying, and other states are considering them. If a school catches a student bullying someone online before the police do, the student may not get involved in more serious trouble.”
“Whats more, school should have the right to punish students for online activity because doing so might save lives. If a student is bothering (招惹) another student, the school could deal with the problem before the argument gets physical. ”
Peter Ivancic, a teacher from Haverhill, Massachusetts, agrees. “If the students have done something worth taking the social networking site password, of course the school should take it,” he says.
From my point of view, schools do have a responsibility to keep track of what students are doing online. Does it mean an invasion of a students privacy? Most students I speak with are clear enough to realize that what they post in public spaces online is open for anyone to see. And they know that schools are looking, too.
But most of all, young people need to learn that when they post something on the Internet, there are consequences (后果). They should not be misbehaving on social networking sites in the first place.