于金超 张天宇
上颌骨作为面部的重要结构之一,对面部的形态美学具有重要的意义,同时也参与鼻腔、眼眶和口腔的组成。发生在上颌窦及其相邻结构的恶性肿瘤常需要进行上颌骨切除术,从而引起上颌骨缺损,包括黏膜缺损、面中部骨架缺如和相邻软组织缺失[1],导致面部畸形,同时也影响吞咽、咀嚼和言语功能[2-3]。在进行上颌骨修复重建时,既要注意功能的恢复,也要兼顾面部三维外形的修复,因此上颌骨缺损的修复存在着一定的难度[4-5]。本文就目前上颌骨切除术后上颌骨缺损修复的进展进行综述。
自从Ohngren提出对上颌骨切除术后上颌骨缺损进行分类后[6-7],从功能学和(或)形态学修复角度出发,学者们提出了多种分类方法。
1.1Brown分类法Brown等[8]根据上颌骨切除术后水平和垂直平面骨质缺损将上颌骨缺损分为4类(Ⅰ~Ⅳ),其中Ⅱ、Ⅳ类又可分为a、b、c亚类。上颌骨切除术后垂直平面根据涉及眼眶、颅底结构和残存的美学形态分为:Ⅰ类,上颌骨切除,无口腔-上颌窦瘘;Ⅱ类,低位上颌骨切除,眼眶完整;Ⅲ类,高位上颌骨切除,切除范围包括眼眶,涉及或不涉及眶周组织和颅底;Ⅳ类:根治性上颌骨切除,摘除眶内容物,切除或不切除前颅底。水平平面分为:a,单侧上颌骨牙槽突和硬腭切除(不涉及鼻中隔或不超过中线);b,双侧上颌骨牙槽突和硬腭切除(部分超过中线涉及鼻中隔);c,上颌骨牙槽突和硬腭全切除。之后Brown等[9]又在上述分类的基础上提出了Ⅴ类(眼眶缺损,硬腭完整)和Ⅵ类(上颌骨和鼻骨切除)。
1.2Cordeirro分类法Cordeirro等[10]将上颌骨切除术后上颌骨缺损分为4类:Ⅰ类,局部上颌骨切除,即不包括硬腭的单侧或双侧上颌骨骨壁切除;Ⅱ类,次全上颌骨切除,即保留眼眶的其他上颌骨骨壁切除;Ⅲ类,上颌骨全切除,Ⅲa不摘除眶内容物,Ⅲb摘除眶内容物;Ⅳ类,保留硬腭,切除包括眶内容物在内的其他上颌骨骨壁。
1.3Triana分类法Triana等[11]将上颌骨切除术后的上颌骨缺损分为2大类:①低位上颌骨切除,根据硬腭缺损的范围又可分为部分硬腭缺损和全部硬腭缺损2类;②上颌骨全切除,根据是否摘除眼眶内容物再分为2类。
1.4Okay分类法Okay等[6]主要根据硬腭水平面骨质的缺损范围进行分类。Ⅰa类:硬腭部分缺损,但上颌骨牙槽突完整;Ⅰb类:硬腭部分缺损,上颌骨牙槽突中间部分缺损但侧方完整,或侧方缺损但中间部分完整;Ⅱ类:部分硬腭、上颌骨牙槽突和单侧中切牙所在牙槽突缺损,或者硬腭前半部分缺损(≤50%);Ⅲ类:部分硬腭、上颌骨牙槽突和两侧中切牙所在牙槽突缺损,或者硬腭前半部分缺损(>50%),或者硬腭全部缺损。眼眶或颧弓的缺损又可分为2个亚类:眼眶不完整为f亚类;颧弓不完整为z亚类。
1.5Aramany分类法Aramany[12-13]根据缺损区域与残余相邻上颌骨牙槽突之间的关系将上颌骨缺损分为6类:Ⅰ类,单侧上颌骨全切除,对侧上颌骨牙槽突保留完整;Ⅱ类:单侧上颌骨切除,保留前半部分和对侧牙槽突;Ⅲ类,上颌骨中心部位缺损,双侧牙槽突完整;Ⅳ类:超过中线的双侧上颌骨大部分切除,仅单侧小范围后部牙槽突保留;Ⅴ类,上颌骨后部切除,保留前部牙槽突;Ⅵ类,上颌骨前部缺损。
1.6其他分类法Spiro等[14]将上颌骨切除分为3类:局部上颌骨切除(上颌窦一侧骨壁);次全上颌骨切除(至少切除2个上颌窦骨壁);上颌骨全切除。Davison等[15]提出将上颌骨切除分为2类:部分上颌骨切除(高位和低位);上颌骨全切除。Wells等[16]提出5类分类法:Ⅰ类,仅有面中部皮肤缺损;Ⅱ类,部分上颌骨切除,硬腭和眼眶完整;Ⅲ类,部分上颌骨切除,硬腭部分缺如,眼眶完整;Ⅳ类,上颌骨全切除,硬腭缺如,眼眶完整;Ⅴ类,上颌骨全切除,硬腭缺如,眼眶不完整。
如前所诉,上颌骨切除术后上颌骨缺损的分类方法多种多样,其分类依据也不尽相同,主要从上颌骨牙槽突[6, 8-9, 12-13]、上颌窦骨壁[8-10, 14]、硬腭和眼眶的完整性以及是否摘除眶内容物[8-10, 16]、残留相邻结构关系[12-13]、高位或低位切除[8, 11]、中央和周围[12-13]、上颌骨前后缺损[6, 8, 10, 12-13]等方面进行分类。临床分类的目的是为了更好地描述手术切除范围和上颌骨缺损以及为随后的治疗提供规范化的参考标准。目前的各种分类方法均很好地从某些角度进行了统一分类,但尚未有一种统一的分类方法作为金标准全面指导上颌骨切除术后上颌骨缺损的手术修复,只能从单个或多个方面进行修复手术参考。在口腔完整性(硬腭缺损)和咀嚼功能(上颌骨牙槽突)方面分类较多,可以作为一个很好的修复参考标准,进一步归纳以指导功能修复。眼眶的完整性也有部分分类提到,但关于软腭和硬腭缺损的分类未进行详细描述。另外,关于言语功能的相应分类没有一个很好的评价标准。
上颌骨切除术后的上颌骨缺损修复要根据缺损类型、位置、范围和大小进行对应性修复,同时兼顾功能重建和形态整复。上颌骨缺损修复应秉承适应组织张力、大小合适、稳定、环绕支撑、活动度适中的原则[13]。理想的修复方法应该满足以下条件[6, 17-19]:①关闭口腔;②提供稳定的框架结构以恢复功能(言语、咀嚼和吞咽等);③重塑面部的对称性;④修复眼眶。硬腭缺损后的修复主要是关闭口、鼻交通,同时改善功能,但目前尚无一种规范化的标准提出[18, 20]。眼眶修复材料必须有足够的强度支撑和容纳眶内容物,也需要有适当的柔软度修复眼眶,同时要具有较好的组织相容性,不妨碍后续治疗[21- 22]。目前文献报道有多种上颌骨缺损修复方法,均存在一定的优势和缺点[18, 23-25],主要分为自体组织修复和赝复体修复2大类。
2.1自体组织修复自体组织修复主要是游离组织瓣和带蒂组织瓣修复。游离组织瓣制备较复杂,但可以获取较多的组织进行修复,同时部分游离组织瓣也可以携带骨组织进行上颌骨的骨性支架修复。显微外科技术的进步也大大提高了游离组织瓣的存活率,因此在上颌骨缺损修复中大量应用。自体游离组织瓣包括腓骨肌皮瓣、髂骨肌瓣、肩胛骨组织瓣、颅骨组织瓣、前臂皮瓣、股前外侧皮瓣和腹直肌皮瓣等。
游离腓骨肌皮瓣被广泛应用于上颌骨缺损的修复[19, 26-32]。移植骨的目的在于重塑颌面骨支架、整复眼眶、重建牙槽突进行种植牙。游离腓骨肌皮瓣的优势在于可以获取足够长度的骨骼,满足颌面骨的最长长度[33- 34],有利于牙齿种植[35]和修复眼眶,并且血管蒂较长[29],活动度好,血管直径大,移植后发生并发症较少,可在制备不同皮瓣的同时修复硬腭和皮肤,术后面部外形恢复佳[26, 36]。缺点是软组织较少,不能有效充填术腔。游离腓骨肌皮瓣可结合应用钛网进行联合修复[26],术中结合计算机辅助设计技术进行准确设计[32]。利用3D打印的颌面模型不仅有利于评价面部外形和解剖结构,还可以用来参照设计缺损亚单位修复[19],精确修复,缩短手术时间,并且可以对术后面部外形进行有效预测[19]。
游离髂骨肌瓣的优势在于可获取丰富的肌肉组织和皮肤[37],直径较大,可有效修复面部外形,重建眼眶[38],经过塑形可达到与上颌骨相似的形态[34];其缺点在于血管蒂较短,组织活动度差[39]。Brown[38]将游离髂骨肌瓣应用于上颌骨缺损的修复,认为是一种非常好的修复方法。Grinsell等[40]回顾分析了11例接受游离髂骨肌瓣修复上颌骨缺损的患者,10例患者术后各项功能均恢复良好。Baliarsing等[41]报道了8例游离髂骨肌瓣修复上颌骨缺损的患者,术后吞咽和言语功能均恢复良好,咀嚼功能全部得以重建,其中5例患者达到了满意的外形恢复。
游离肩胛骨组织瓣可应用于上颌骨缺损的修复[42-44],优势在于可获取较长的骨性结构,并可同时获取肌肉和皮肤,血管蒂较长[45],血管直径较大,所应用的胸背动脉可供应大部分肩胛骨,肩胛骨形态与上颌骨硬腭结构相似度较高[45- 46],可同时进行上颌窦前壁、眼眶和硬腭的重建[44],术后可达到良好的面部外形修复,言语功能恢复较好,并且对肩胛骨组织瓣供区外形和功能的影响较小。但肩胛骨组织瓣较薄,游离瓣制备不能与上颌骨切除同步进行,目前已较少应用于上颌骨切除术后上颌骨缺损的修复。
Pollice等[47]回顾分析了6例应用游离颅骨组织瓣进行上颌骨缺损修复的患者,5例患者术后面部形态恢复良好,1例患者进行再次手术。游离颅骨组织瓣不能进行重塑,软组织获取量较少,缺乏柔韧性,仅可应用于较小的上颌骨缺损修复。
游离前臂皮瓣是一种常用的上颌骨修复组织。皮瓣制备简易,可获取大量的皮肤组织用于修复面部皮肤和口腔黏膜缺损,血管蒂较长,易于移植,成功率高。但是由于不能影响前臂功能,只能获取一小块桡骨,不能携带大量的骨组织,不能塑形。Andrades等[48]认为游离前臂皮瓣修复的最佳适应证为Ⅱ型上颌骨缺损[10],Ⅲ型和Ⅳ型上颌骨缺损应用游离前臂皮瓣修复后并发症较多。
游离股前外侧皮瓣[49]和游离腹直肌皮瓣[50]也可应用于上颌骨缺损的修复。游离股前外侧皮瓣组织量丰富,移植成功率高,但不能取到骨组织,不能进行上颌骨的功能性重建。游离腹直肌皮瓣取材简便,组织量多,解剖恒定,并可以取部分肋骨畸形修复重建[51],适合于大面积缺损修复,但术后功能恢复差。
颞肌筋膜瓣等局部带蒂组织瓣血供丰富,术后恢复快,并发症少,操作简便,对供区形态影响小[3];但由于其长度有限,只能用于局部小范围的修复。
2.2赝复体修复包括口腔赝复体修复和颜面部赝复体修复。口腔赝复体修复主要是功能性修复,要求关闭口、鼻交通,同时也要有良好的生物相容性和生物力学特性,并具有一定的抗老化特性。颜面部赝复体主要是外观美学修复,要求具有一定的仿真性,目前应用较广的材料为硅橡胶。上颌骨切除术后的上颌骨缺损修复主要是自体组织修复,赝复体仅作为一个选择性的修复方法[52],可以与自体组织修复联合应用[53]。上颌骨切除术中即刻安装赝复体后患者功能性恢复较快[54],赝复体修复术后可恢复一定的言语[55]和咀嚼[56-57]功能。应用计算机辅助设计和计算机辅助制造(CAD/CAM)对赝复体进行精确塑形,有助于面部外形的良好恢复,同时也对言语、咀嚼和吞咽功能的修复有重要意义,提高了患者的生活质量。赝复体具有损伤小、功能恢复快和可摘戴等优点,但作为一种人工材料,修复术后可能会引起局部损伤和炎症等,对于较大的缺损修复难度大。
3.1功能学评价上颌骨缺损修复术后的功能学评价主要包括最大张口度、言语能力、咀嚼功能、吞咽功能和眼眶功能[3, 7, 55-57]。通过测量张口时最大距离评估术后对张口的影响。言语能力可以通过客观评价患者发音清晰度和识别度进行评估。评估患者的咀嚼能力主要用于牙托和硬腭修复术后。观察眼眶修复术后有无复视、斜视和眼球运动评估眼眶的功能。
3.2形态学评价[3, 7]主观性评价和客观性评价对术后修复效果的评价同样重要。通过可视量表对患者的形态修复进行客观评估,3D成像技术可以更加客观评价面部骨性形态的恢复。客观性的形态学评价是一种比较可靠的评价方式,能够客观准确地反映临床修复效果。患者对面部外形的接受度也可作为一种评估方法,主观性评价简便易行,能够很好地评估患者对外观美学的满意接受度,与客观性评价相比,较适合于临床修复效果评估。
上颌骨切除术后引起上颌骨缺损,导致了一定的面部畸形,影响了患者的心理健康,同时也造成了吞咽、咀嚼和言语等功能障碍。上颌骨缺损的修复目前仍是一个富有挑战性的难题。上颌骨缺损的分类尚存在争议,没有一个统一的金标准指导修复手术。目前主要是多种自体组织修复,但尚无一种统一的方法应用于临床。随着技术的发展,CAD/CAM已应用于上颌骨缺损修复,期待3D打印技术和组织工程学技术应用于上颌骨缺损的精确修复。
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