贺海燕,李映兰, 李 丽,于平平,龙艳芳
(1中南大学湘雅护理学院,湖南 长沙410013; 2中南大学湘雅医院,湖南 长沙 410008)
·综述·
医务人员针刺伤的危害、预防与管理
贺海燕1,2,李映兰1,2, 李 丽2,于平平2,龙艳芳
(1中南大学湘雅护理学院,湖南 长沙410013; 2中南大学湘雅医院,湖南 长沙 410008)
针刺伤;医务人员;危害;预防;管理;知信行
针刺伤是指由头皮针、注射器针头、静脉导管、采血针或皮下注射针头等锐器导致的皮肤损伤[1],针刺伤可引起血源性病原体感染,导致血源性疾病的传播。针刺伤对医务人员造成的伤害日益引起重视,据美国职业暴露预防网统计报道,2008年美国99所医院共发生针刺伤3 126例,平均每100张床位17.2例[2]。日本文献统计,2009年4月—2014年4月翼型钢针针刺伤发生率为236例/1 000个锐器,注射器针头180例/1 000个锐器,静脉导管152例/1 000个锐器[3]。在资源相对匮乏的发展中国家,形势更为严峻,针刺伤所致感染事件几乎占全球数据的90%[4]。我国医务人员面临职业暴露的高危风险,据13个省份158所不同级别医院职业暴露调查报告,监测首年、2010年及2015年的职业暴露事件合计分别达1 542、2 474和7 100例[5]。因此,有效预防和管理医务人员针刺伤尤为必要。建立针刺伤管理系统是降低针刺伤发生率的主要策略。以下我们将从针刺伤的危害、预防和管理三个方面对针刺伤相关最新研究进行综述。
1.1 生理危害 针刺伤后的主要危害包括感染、疾病,残疾,甚至死亡。超过25种血源性病原体可通过血液、体液传播。其中乙型肝炎病毒(HBV)感染占常见病原体感染总数的比率最高,达55.93%,其次为人类免疫缺陷病毒(HIV,30.51%)、丙型肝炎病毒(HCV,10.17%)以及梅毒(3.39%)[6]。对印度Apex创伤中心医务人员长达29个月的前瞻性研究发现,该中心医务工作者锐器损伤暴露后所致HBV和HIV感染发生率高达3.1%、2.2%[7]。美国疾病控制与预防中心(CDC)认为在一次被HIV、HCV和HBV污染的针头刺伤过程中所致感染的可能性分别为0.3%~0.5%、4%~5%和6%~30%[8]。因此,医务人员可能遭受针刺伤后的感染风险,长期生理影响,以及血源性疾病药物治疗干预导致不良反应等情况,务必予以警惕和重视[6]。
1.2 心理危害 针刺伤不仅造成医务人员身体伤害,也会导致其巨大的心理创伤。每年全球有300万医务人员由于暴露于可能污染的针头而承受不同程度的心理压力[9]。医务人员发生针刺伤后往往出现各种负面心理,包括不同程度的压力、焦虑、愤怒和罪恶感[10]。针刺伤间接影响工作、家庭和性功能,严重影响医务人员的生活质量[11]。调查[12]发现,针刺伤与情感耗竭及人格解体呈正相关,经历过针刺伤的护士比未经历过针刺伤的护士更容易发生职业倦怠。国内研究也发现护士经历职业暴露后,躯体症状、焦虑、强迫、抑郁等9个因子得分均高于国内平均水平[13]。目前,我国相关研究大多停留在护士发生针刺伤后心理应激反应的简单定性表述,如担心、害怕、焦虑、恐惧等,对其程度缺乏定量研究。
1.3 经济损失 医务人员发生针刺伤后,造成的经济损失包括误工工资、检查费用、预防性治疗费用、追踪随访费用等。据美国CDC统计,每例针刺伤及时治疗和追踪随访的费用约为71~5 000美元;根据暴露源的不同,管理每例针刺伤的总费用预计波动在71~4 838美元;而每例血源性疾病感染者终身需要花费约100万美元,包括疾病检查、治疗,以及因病不能工作所致的误工损失;即使未感染,每例针刺伤后相关检查及治疗费用也需51~3 766美元[14]。
医务人员针刺伤后的预防费用给各国家带来沉重的经济负担。据统计,美国医疗系统2004年共发生644 963例针刺伤,因此导致的医疗费用约为1 073亿,此外,针刺伤后的工作缺勤导致潜在损失约为812亿[15]。在英国胰岛素注射相关针刺伤的经济负担每年达60万英镑[16]。除欧美发达国家,亚洲发达国家和发展中国家也面临着针刺伤带来的沉重经济负担。2005—2006年韩国34所医院关于针刺伤的平均药物、实验室检查、医疗服务和医疗诊治费用分别为129、70、28和10美元[17]。用于HBV、HCV和HIV预防性措施的平均费用分别是168、134和146美元。国内关于针刺伤的成本研究较少,部分研究对HIV职业暴露事件使用成本理论和成本测算,然而基于不同研究中地域经济和治疗方案方面存在差异,其成本分析存在较大差别[18]。
2.1 安全针具 安全针具即运用了安全保护机制的针具(如可伸缩的针或盾),可用于预防针刺伤的发生[19]。安全针具包括注射设备、静脉导管设备、静脉采血设备、缝合针和外科刀等。目前,对安全器具效果的探讨仍存在争议,缺乏高质量的研究。文献[19-24]研究使用安全针具对减少针刺伤发生率的效果,认为安全器具可以提高安全性,减少医务人员针刺伤的风险。中华人民共和国国家职业卫生标准指出,安全针装置平均减少71%的针刺伤发生率[25]。但是,也有部分文献提出不同类别、不同作用机制的安全针具效果不同,甚至认为安全器具并不能减少针刺伤[26]。Prunet等[27]比较两种不同的外周静脉导管预防针刺伤的效果,发现安全器具不一定能够减少针刺伤。
2.2 教育培训 教育培训内容包括安全操作流程、标准预防、感染控制、防护设备、上报系统、公共卫生和政策指南等。安全器具和教育培训结合可以大幅度减少针刺伤发生率。Tarigan 等对医务人员预防针刺伤的措施进行Meta分析,发现使用安全器具后针刺伤的平均发生率是使用安全器具前的66% (95%CI: 0.50~0.89),培训后针刺伤的平均发生率是培训前的51%(95%CI:0.40~0.64),而安全器具和教育培训结合后针刺伤的平均发生率是两者结合前的38%(95%CI, 0.28~0.50)[22]。许多国家回顾性研究[3,28-32]表明,安全器具的使用应结合教育培训;另外也有文献单独报道教育培训对针刺伤的预防和管理的效果。针对特定医务人员、医疗场所、操作流程和安全器具实施的针刺伤教育干预是有效的[33]。然而,Mehrdad等[34]研究发现,教育培训后医务人员上报的针刺伤并未减少,可能与培训后医务人员上报意识增强有关。关于针刺伤教育降低医务人员针刺伤发生率的大部分研究对象集中在实习护士。研究[35]比较参加培训前后预防针刺伤的行为,护士知识、态度、动机、技术、推动使用安全针具和安全文化有明显改善。医务人员对针刺伤的预防和管理知识缺乏,亟需更多的培训,降低针刺伤风险。根据医务人员的需求,采取针对性的培训很有必要。医务人员接受针刺伤的教育培训至关重要[21]。
2.3 免疫接种 据统计,全世界共有20亿乙型肝炎病毒感染者和3.5亿乙型肝炎病毒携带者[36]。乙肝疫苗接种是阻断乙型肝炎病毒传播的有效途径,医务人员应常规接种乙肝疫苗。目前,来自巴基斯坦、叙利亚、格鲁吉亚和尼日利亚等多个国家或地区的横断面研究[36-40],调查医务人员免疫接种现状、障碍因素、促进因素、针刺伤发生率,以及医务人员对乙肝疫苗的知信行水平等,结果显示医务人员乙肝疫苗接种率因国家或者地区不同而不同,上述国家或地区医务人员乙肝疫苗接种率最低仅为12%,而针刺伤发生率波动在48.5%~78.5%,感染比率最高达4.3%[37, 41]。有些地区乙肝疫苗接种率较低主要归因于缺乏疫苗接种的条件[42]。与CDC有关乙肝免疫的指南反复强调,医务人员应该接受完整的乙肝疫苗接种并记录留档[43]。Usmani等[39]指出医务人员对感染风险的无知和缺少免疫接种的意识导致疫苗接种覆盖率不高,因而亟需对医务人员进行乙肝疫苗接种的教育培训,以增进医务人员对疫苗接种的认识,进而改变其行为。入职时医务人员应接受详细指导,使其充分理解疫苗接种的利弊,从而促进疫苗接种的实施。安全、有效、低成本的疫苗,规律的随访和保密的上报系统也能够增加疫苗接种的接受度。
3.1 暴露后预防 常规和及时的暴露后预防可以有效地预防针刺伤后血源性疾病的传播[12,44]。发生针刺伤时,暴露者应迅速采用流动水冲洗伤口,同时从近心端向远心端挤出少量血液,用75%乙醇消毒伤口,检测感染基线并上报咨询,在相关部门的指导下进行预防性用药和跟踪随访[45]。尼日利亚拉各斯大学(Lagos University)教学医院的医务人员暴露后预防知识知晓情况尚可,态度积极,但暴露后预防的行为缺乏[44]。Shaghaghian等[46]指出,医务人员暴露后预防的知识水平不足以改变相应的行为。研究[47-48]报道,39%被调查的医务人员未意识到针刺伤的高风险,70.5%遭受过针刺伤的医务人员在过去3个月经历过至少1次针刺伤。暴露后预防的依从性因人而异,与医务人员暴露后预防的知信行水平、经济条件和是否有随访监测息息相关[48]。医务人员应该提高暴露后预防的知信行水平,严格执行标准预防,避免发生针刺伤[49]。医院应该建立和完善针刺伤的上报流程、风险评估、治疗处置、随访监测和咨询等渠道,定期评估和监测医务人员的心理影响和生理健康[7,10]。
3.2 上报系统 针刺伤的上报系统有利于管理医务人员针刺伤。医务人员被可能污染的针头刺伤后通过直接处理和及时上报,可以减少感染的风险[50]。不同地区的针刺伤发生率和上报率不同。由于针刺伤的风险往往被低估,不上报或低上报的现象非常普遍[51]。很多潜在原因导致低上报或不上报:包括工作忙[51-54]、低估感染风险[51-52, 55-56]、知识缺乏[52]、对随访不满意[55, 57]和害怕指责以及宗教信仰[10]。由于医务人员漏报或者不报针刺伤,导致无法及时进行暴露后预防和随访监测,一定程度上威胁到医务人员的职业健康和安全[58-59]。我国尚无统一的锐器伤上报和监测系统,无法获得全国范围内医护人员针刺伤的流行病学数据,因此,亟需建立针刺伤上报系统以及完善相关教育培训,并不断提高上报系统的及时性和保密性,鼓励医务人员上报,改变针刺伤漏报或不报的现状。
综上所述,针刺伤是医务人员主要的职业危害之一,对医务人员造成生理伤害、心理压力,同时还导致巨大的经济损失。国内针刺伤发生率高,感染率高和上报率低,而且医务人员对于针刺伤表现出不同层次的知信行水平,亟需通过免疫接种、安全器具和教育培训有效的预防和管理针刺伤。另外,医院应建立监测和上报系统,改变针刺伤漏报或不报的现状。
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(本文编辑:曾翠)
Hazard, prevention and management of needle stick injuries among health care workers
(HE Hai-yan)1,2,(LI Ying-lan)1,2,(LI Li)2,(YU Ping-ping)2,(LONG Yan-fang)2
(1 Xiangya Nursing School, Central South University, Changsha 410013, China; 2 Xiangya hospital, Central South University, Changsha 410008, China)
2017-02-15
中南大学湘雅医院管理研究基金项目(2016GL15)
贺海燕(1988-),女(汉族),湖南省衡阳市人,护师,主要从事职业防护研究。
李映兰 E-mail:yuyan0202@sina.com
10.3969/j.issn.1671-9638.2017.06.023
R136
A
1671-9638(2017)06-0582-05