二语教师话语中的修补启动
2015-12-24 06:36:12姚剑鹏
当代外语研究 2015年9期
二语教师话语中的修补启动
姚剑鹏
(宁波工程学院,宁波,315211)
摘要:修补启动是启动者运用言语和非言语手段对监控到的言语错误向交际对方发出修补信号的行为。它在会话自我修补过程中起着关键的作用。本文以我国二语课堂师生互动环境为背景,针对课堂话语中教师对学习者的自我修补启动行为,分启动者、启动位和启动技巧等方面进行梳理,并结合课堂语料,讨论教师修补启动的特征及其作用。
关键词:会话自我修补,修补启动,修补启动者,修补启动位,修补启动技巧
[中图分类号]H08
doi[编码] 10.3969/j.issn.1674-8921.2015.09.013
作者简介:姚剑鹏,宁波工程学院外国语学院教授、博士。主要研究方向为话语分析、认知语言学。电子邮箱:yjpjimmy@126.com
1. 引言
教师话语是课堂教学的组成部分,起着修补学习者言语错误、评判学习者表现、向学习者提供可理解性输入和输出,以及充当目的语的信息源等作用。自20世纪50年代起,西方语言学界就开始系统研究课堂教学;到了70～80年代,对教师课堂话语的研究更加深入,涌现出大量描述和理解外语课堂的研究成果。近年来,相关研究关注教师话语中的语码转换、教师提问、课堂行为、附带的文化信息等等。
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(责任编辑吴诗玉)
然而,从整个研究来看,教师话语的研究视角还较为狭窄,仍“可以对教师话语从诸如自我修正、非流利因子、韵律等多角度进行研究”(周学恒、邓晓明2012:112)。从教师话语本身来看,在我国二语课堂里,还存在着诸如形式与功能单一、简化和单向等问题(张敏2012:41);开放性的、激发学习者想象力和发散思维的提问比例还极少(何安平2003:169),因此,充分发挥教师话语作用以促进学习者的语言习得尤为必要,从会话自我修补视角研究教师话语有其实践和运用价值,而针对教师话语中的修补启动展开研究也有其意义所在。
会话自我修补是话者在交际过程中对所监控到的各类言语错误进行自我改正的行为。它充斥在人类自然言语当中,也常见于二语课堂,是衡量学习者二语习得成功与否的关键因素。通过修补,学习者获得理解了的输入和可理解性输出(Cho 2008:18)。要想获得此效果,学习者的修补意识要加强,对修补的启动要得法。本文以我国二语课堂师生互动环境为背景,针对课堂话语中教师对学习者的自我修补启动行为,分启动者、启动位和启动技巧等方面进行梳理,并结合课堂语料,讨论教师修补启动的特征及其作用。
2. 教师修补启动
Terzi(2010:777)认为修补启动是“其中一个对话者就所检测到的语误发出信号的过程”。国内学者马文(2004,引自朱娅蓉2010:66)则将其定义为“引出自我修正或要求他人进行修正的一个信号”。我们认为,两定义均欠完整,故提出下列定义:修补启动是启动者在监控到语误之后通过言语或非言语手段向交际对方发出修补信号并启动修补,以便后者实施修补的行为,达到理想化交流和习得语言的目的。
2.1修补启动者
1977年,Schegloff等人在对会话修补的研究中,提出了修补启动这一概念。他们将启动分为自启(self-initiation)和他启(other-initiation),并将会话修补分为自启/自补(self-initiation/self-repair)、自启/他补(self-initiation/other-repair)、他启/自补(other-initiation/self-repair)和他启/他补(other-initiation/other repair)等四种修补类型。可见,从启动者角度来划分,修补启动有话者本人(自启)或其他话者(他启)所作的启动(Yasui 2010:43)。
例1①显示了话者自启自补的特点和过程。话者Alina发现了言语错误,随即停止了语流,对言语错误启动并实施修补,之后再恢复语流。其特点是整个修补过程均在同一话轮中。例2中的Rickie似乎难以提取有关购物袋的信息,语流分别暂停在“sh-”和“old be-”之后。对此,Rebecca试图通过提供有关购物袋信息来启动修补,最后Rickie作了修补。此例中,Rebecca两次启动修补(shopping bag?和a plastic)。与例1相比,此类修补跨越了话轮。
(1) ALINA: ～Hector] was s- —
you know,
they were scoring?
...the...show last week?
And I—
...and I called up [to talk] to him,
(SBC0006)
(2) RICKIE: ...Like a sh=-,
...like a... [old be-,
REBECCA: [Shopping bag]?
RICKIE: Yeah]=.
a shopping [bag].
REBECCA: [a plas]tic,
RICKIE: Yeah[=]. (SBC0008)
Schegloff等人的研究还揭示,在自然言语环境下,自启数量超过他启。二语课堂里的情景却不尽相同。研究指出,语言学习者倾向于自我修补而不是他人修补(Buckwalter 2001;Foster & Ohta 2005),其自我修补的频率超过本族语者(Kormos 2000)。但由于诸如说话太轻、发音不准确、选词有误或提供了模糊的解释等原因,学习者的交流时常遭遇失败(Comeau & Genesee 2001),再加上本身语言水平有限,使得他们转而依赖教师来启动修补,因此,他启自补在数量上超过了自启自补。据统计,在二语课堂里,有74%的自我修补是由教师启动的(McHoul 1990:366),相比之下,由学习者自我启动的自我修补则十分缺乏(McHoul 1990:353)。
那么,在中国二语课堂环境下,学习者会话自我修补情景又如何呢?相关研究揭示,在我国的二语课堂话语中,他启自补或他启他补的现象十分突出(杨晓健2008),而且启动者多为教师(杨晓健2008;朱娅蓉2010)。本研究支持此类说法,但认为在师生互动环境下,修补形式为教师启动修补,学习者实施自我修补。除此之外,还存在着生生互动以及学习者自我言语的现象,因此,启动也可由另一学习者启动,也可自我启动,这与课堂交际形式有关,与教师和学习者的角色和地位有关。
因此,根据二语课堂互动环境的性质以及参与者的角色和地位,修补启动者应以教师为主。
2.2修补启动位
修补启动有其较为固定的位置(placement of repair initiation)。最早指出这一现象的是Schegloff等人。他们指出,极大多数的修补启动位于同话轮、话轮转换处或包括阻碍源话轮在内的第三个话轮。然而,他们的研究是针对自然言语环境下的自我修补,那么,二语课堂自我修补的启动位又如何呢?
从语料来看,我们认为,二语课堂互动环境下学习者自我修补的启动位在第二话轮,课堂修补的主要轨迹应为他启自补,表现为三话轮修补模式,即阻碍源话轮(第一话轮)、修补启动话轮(第二话轮)和修补话轮(第三话轮),亦即:
trouble source (TS, T1)→repair initiation (RI, T2)→self-repair (SR, T3)
这一结论与McHoul(1990:355)和Makinen(2008:18)的研究发现相吻合,也得到了本文所依托的英语视听说课堂语料的支持。例如:
(3) S5: And when when husband was in no mood, she knows... (TS, T1)
T: She knows how to (RI, T2)
S5: encourage and inspire his husband. (SR, T3) when when husband was in no mood, she knows... (TS, T1)
T: She knows how to (RI, T2)
S5: encourage and inspire his husband. (SR, T3)
(4) S2: Because first she is a new comer in the USA, so he must so she must find a family to support her. (TS, T1)
T: Is that so? Oh, what do you mean by supporting her, financially or? (RI1, T2)
S2: No, no no. @此处为汉语Support means maybe sometimes she will have some troubles in. Maybe sometimes she will feel very sad, and and, (SR1, T3)
T: So you mean a kind of spiritual supporting? (RI2, T4)
S2: Yes. (SR2, T5) first she is a new comer in the USA, so he must so she must find a family to support her. (TS, T1)
T: Is that so? Oh, what do you mean by supporting her, financially or? (RI1, T2)
S2: No, no no. @此处为汉语Support means maybe sometimes she will have some troubles in. Maybe sometimes she will feel very sad, and and, (SR1, T3)
T: So you mean a kind of spiritual supporting? (RI2, T4)
S2: Yes. (SR2, T5)
以上两例均符合上述结论。例3中的教师结合视听说教材内容,组织学习者讨论“心目中的理想丈夫/妻子”。于是,学习者S5认为,当丈夫情绪不佳时,做妻子的应该做点什么。然而,他显然碰到了概念提取问题,无法提取正确的有关妻子该做点什么的信息。教师随即用重复加how to来启动修补,为S5提供了一定的提示。S5领会了教师的意图,采取即刻修补的策略(instant repair),直接实施了修补。例4中,教师T听到了S2的不充分信息to support her,随即发出了质疑,用what do you mean by结构启动了对该信息的修补,S2在第三话轮中进行了修补,并得到了教师的第二次修补启动,在第五话轮中最终完成整个修补。虽然修补启动和学习者的自我修补延续到了第4和第5个话轮,但是,其轨迹仍然是阻碍源、修补启动和自我修补三个阶段。
这样的观点也符合课堂话语的三步模式。1975年,伯明翰学派话语分析法代表人物Sinclair和Coulhard提出IRF课堂话语模式,即教师的引发步(initiating move)、学习者的应答步(responding move)和教师的反馈步(feedback move)。之后因避免语义歧义,他们将第三步feedback修改为follow-up。1979年,Mehan提出IRE模式,即教师提出问题(initiation)、学生回答(response)与教师评价(evaluation)三步。1990年,McHoul将IRE模式修正为IREC模式,即教师提出问题(initiation)、学生回答(reply)、教师评价(evaluation)和学生或教师改正(correction)。
我们认为,在课堂师生互动环境下,话语模式应为TIR模式,即学生产生阻碍源步(trouble source move,T),教师引发修补步(repair initiation move,I),学生做出修补步(self-repair move,R)。这是因为上述模式虽有其可取之处,却忽视了引发教师启动修补的源头即学生的阻碍源;从课堂话语的实际来看,师生互动主要是针对学习者的言语错误而引发的,理应将学生的阻碍源考虑进去。例如:
(5) S5: Ah, I like a movie directed by Jay, ahTheSecretTheSecretThatCan’tTell.
T: En, OK.
S5: I like it very much. I I watch this movie at least five times. I think it’s ah it’s very move.
T: It’s very moving.
S5: It’s very moving. Er, ah,
T: En, OK.
S5: I like it very much. I I watch this movie at least five times. I think it’s ah it’s very move.
T: It’s very moving.
S5: It’s very moving. Er, ah,
上例中,学生在言语表达中认为上述影片非常感人,因此看了至少五遍,但是,他将感人的词语选错了,该用“moving”,但提取了错词“move”,词汇使用错误,产生了阻碍源步。在下一话轮中,教师监控到了学生的言语偏误,随即启动了修补,引发了修补启动步。这里,教师直接采用了显性纠错策略。学生S5领会了教师的纠错信息,因此重复了教师的修正信息加以自我修补,并用填充词er和ah加以肯定,完成了修补步。
2.3修补启动技巧
修补启动技巧指的是会话修补的启动者利用言语和非言语手段来启动修补的技巧。从言语上来划分,有填充词huh、um等;疑问词what、who、where、when等;部分重复加上疑问词或部分重复、重复等以及you mean加上对前话轮的理解话语等。从非言语上来划分,有语流暂停、语音拉长、词尾音拉长、词间停顿、语调打断、手势、目视等(Seedhouse 2004:146;Hennoste 2005:83),还包括喉塞音、升调等(Buckwalter 2001)。
Liebscher和Dailey-O’Cain(2003:379-388)研究发现了以下修补启动策略有:(1)教师使用话语标记词hmm?等来提示语误并启动修补;(2)教师用hmm?以及重复学习者言语来启动修补;(3)教师用语码转换来启动修补;(4)重复以修正;(5)重复以确认;(6)部分重复加疑问词;(7)教师的理解检查加语码转换和解释;(8)教师用in what way等句型要求解释,等等。需要指出的是,上述修补启动策略还有强、弱之分,并形成了一定的等级,而且偏强启动胜过偏弱启动(Schegloff 2007:101)。
关于我国二语课堂的教师修补启动技巧,国内研究似不多见。现有对技巧的分类均延续西方研究者的划分,即非特定的pardon等、重复要求、部分重复加疑问词、部分重复、要求释义、翻译和解释等(杨晓健2008;崔海迪2011)。
根据本文依托的语料,共发现了wh型、you mean型、重复型、一般疑问句型和其它型等教师修补启动技巧。
2.3.1wh型
语料显示,教师习惯用what、which等特殊疑问句来表达自己对学习者言语的疑问,要求学习者进一步加以澄清或释义。例如:
(6) S1: I think she fall in love at the first sight @ with with the boy.
T: A boy. Which boy? The younger one or the elder one? Here is the problem. Maybe some of you think just the the elder one, the Richard. The younger one that’s Robbie
S1: Robbie. think she fall in love at the first sight @ with with the boy.
T: A boy. Which boy? The younger one or the elder one? Here is the problem. Maybe some of you think just the the elder one, the Richard. The younger one that’s Robbie
S1: Robbie.
例6中,教师要求学习者指出谁是让女孩一见钟情的男孩,是Richard还是Robbie,最后,学习者S1认为是Robbie。
2.3.2you mean型
从语料来上看,you mean型明显起着理解确认的作用。例如:
(7) T: Oh, you want to be a pilot.
S7: Yes.
T: Pilot. You mean in the air?
S7: Yeah.
T: Up the air?
S7: Not for the travelers or businessmen, nut during the natural disasters, I can fly to the areas to help the people. you want to be a pilot.
S7: Yes.
T: Pilot. You mean in the air?
S7: Yeah.
T: Up the air?
S7: Not for the travelers or businessmen, nut during the natural disasters, I can fly to the areas to help the people.
例7中,教师要学习者谈个人今后想要从事的理想职业。S7表示想当飞行员。教师做出理解确认后,学生意识到pilot的多层意思,所以再次确认,并启动修补两次。
2.3.3重复型
此类重复有三种类型组成,即完全重复、部分重复以及部分重复加wh词。例如:
(8) S6: My family has three laws.
T: Oh, your family has three laws, oh, how does it mean?
S6: The first law is that my wife should listen to me. family has three laws.
T: Oh, your family has three laws, oh, how does it mean?
S6: The first law is that my wife should listen to me.
(9) S7: First, I want to say feel sorry about this.
T: Be sorry about what?
S7: My true ideal job has nothing to do with my major. I want to say feel sorry about this.
T: Be sorry about what?
S7: My true ideal job has nothing to do with my major.
例8显示,教师重复了S6的全部信息,由此启动了对该信息的修补。例9的教师重复了部分单词,然后再加上wh疑问词,要求S7做出进一步的解释性修补,而学生进行了相应信息修补。
2.3.4一般疑问句型
教师还会用一般疑问句形式启动修补。例如:
(10) S1: Ah, I think she is on purpose.
T: Ah, she left her bag on purpose. Do you have particular reason for doing that?
S1: I think she fall in love at the first sight @ with with the boy. I think she is on purpose.
T: Ah, she left her bag on purpose. Do you have particular reason for doing that?
S1: I think she fall in love at the first sight @ with with the boy.
上例中,教师用一般疑问句Do you have启动了修补,要求学习者给予进一步的澄清。S1在接下去的言语中做出了相应的解释。
2.3.5其他型
(11) W/C: Vice president
T: She is the vice president of who?
W/C: Children.
T: Children. Ah, yes, something related with children. So clever. Children love when you were young, you love toy. 此处为汉语Toy company. Yes So is the vice president for
W/C: Toy company.
T: A toy company. I think she is a vice president for a toy company. No, that’s too high for her rank.此处为汉语Just a department for a company.此处为汉语Let me spend one more minute.此处为汉语音频播放部分You just listen is the vice president of who?
W/C: Children.
T: Children. Ah, yes, something related with children. So clever. Children love when you were young, you love toy. 此处为汉语Toy company. Yes So is the vice president for
W/C: Toy company.
T: A toy company. I think she is a vice president for a toy company. No, that’s too high for her rank.此处为汉语Just a department for a company.此处为汉语Let me spend one more minute.此处为汉语音频播放部分You just listen president
T: She is the vice president of who?
W/C: Children.
T: Children. Ah, yes, something related with children. So clever. Children love when you were young, you love toy. 此处为汉语Toy company. Yes So is the vice president for
W/C: Toy company.
T: A toy company. I think she is a vice president for a toy company. No, that’s too high for her rank.此处为汉语Just a department for a company.此处为汉语Let me spend one more minute.此处为汉语音频播放部分You just listen is the vice president of who?
W/C: Children.
T: Children. Ah, yes, something related with children. So clever. Children love when you were young, you love toy. 此处为汉语Toy company. Yes So is the vice president for
W/C: Toy company.
T: A toy company. I think she is a vice president for a toy company. No, that’s too high for her rank.此处为汉语Just a department for a company.此处为汉语Let me spend one more minute.此处为汉语音频播放部分You just listen
本例教师先用一句肯定句加疑问词启动修补,然后从小孩的特性入手,将讨论引导到小孩喜欢的玩具,再引导到玩具公司,最后通过录音,确定了主人公的最后职务。这样,通过一系列的修补启动和启发式引导,最后才弄清了具体的信息。
(12) S6: My ideal job
T: You ideal job is
S6: Is to be a superstar@
T: Superstar in Chinese you mean此处为汉语
S6: Oh,no.此处为汉语
T:此处为汉语
例11中的教师通过层层诱导,不断启动修补,最终产生完整的修补信息。例12中的教师采用的方法也是诱导。她通过重复加添加的方式,引导学习者予以修补,并使信息完整。
3. 教师修补启动的作用
修补启动技巧如果运用得好,在教学实践上一定会起到推动作用。我们将上述技巧运用到英语视听说课的师生互动当中,得到如下实践效果。
3.1提升注意力
教师能够对学习者的言语错误提供修补反馈并采取有效策略启动修补,关键是教师能监控并识别学习者的言语错误,其中注意机制起着关键的作用。因为这一修补现象的实质是教师把“注意”随机转移到语言形式特征上,从而达到“提升注意力”之目的,进而纠正错误。例如:
(13) S2: Very nice father. And I think he is also very educated.
T: Very educated? We we called a person well-educated.
S2: Yeah, well-educated. And I think he is very calm because he can’t find the way and it is the first time for his blind dating. But he is very calm.
T: Yeah, not moody at all. nice father. And I think he is also very educated.
T: Very educated? We we called a person well-educated.
S2: Yeah, well-educated. And I think he is very calm because he can’t find the way and it is the first time for his blind dating. But he is very calm.
T: Yeah, not moody at all.
上例中,当学习者S2说到视听材料中的人物是非常不错的父亲,又显得很有文化(very educated)时,教师监控到了语误,并用重复加疑问句升调的形式启动修补,做出了正确与否的评判,并给出了准确的信息。学习者明白了错误并实施了修补。这样,达到了使学习者准确习得目的语的目的。
有了教师的注意和修补启动,学习者才能注意到教师的修补启动,并注意到自己的言语产出与目的语的正确的语言形式之间所存在的差距,进而做出修补反应(uptake),即采取一定的修补策略实施修补。教师的修补启动实际上就是提升注意力的行为。
3.2留面子
会话修补的社会语言学研究价值在于通过对言语错误的修补,人们意欲维持面子需求,保持一致。如果话者被听者在很多别的听者面前直接指出语误,话者的积极面子(positive face)就会受损(Tang 2011:94)。
为了保住学习者的积极面子,教师与其说是直接更正学习者的言语错误,倒不如给对方一个机会以便挽回面子。于是,各种修补启动技巧起到了留面子的作用,见例:
(14) S2: Another reason is because the girl is major in Ma-Math.
T: Math? Science? Yes, science. She is at science major.
S2: Ah, science.
T: Yeah, she is at science major. reason is because the girl is major in Ma-Math.
T: Math? Science? Yes, science. She is at science major.
S2: Ah, science.
T: Yeah, she is at science major.
上例中,学习者S2认为该女孩的专业是数学。但教师认为,不应该是数学专业,应该是理科专业。这时,教师没有直截了当地给予否定,而是用问题形式加升调发出监测到语误的信号。为了进一步避免强加,教师用yes加以缓冲,然后启动修补。在接下来的话轮中,学习者进行了自我修补,肯定了教师的纠错行为。在第四个话轮中,教师才最后加以确认。可以清楚地看到,教师在不断给面子、留面子,避免伤害学习者的自尊。
3.3促进语言习得
人们认为含有修补的意义协商过程可以使语言的习得更快、更容易。学习者在学习如何运用修补策略进行有效的会话的同时,也习得了句法结构知识和词汇知识。当学习者参与会话,通过请求、澄清、修补等策略进行意义协商来完成社会活动中的各种行为时,他才能习得语言规则性的成分。教师的修补启动能够有效地帮助学习者习得目标语知识。
上述例5中的学习者S5感到电影非常动人,然而他在提取moving的时候有困难,以至于用了填充词(ah)以及自我重复(it’s)。但经过这些之后,他所提取的词汇仍然是错词move。这时教师就启动了修补,直接给出了对词moving。学习者重复了对词,而且用er和ah加以确认和肯定,从而习得了moving这一词汇。
3.4帮助输入与输出
会话修补的目的是为了促进输入与输出。因此,保输入便是教师启动修补的另一目的。通过修补启动,使学习者有效地实现目的语的输入,从而确保可理解性输出。例如:
(15) S5: Ah, I think the ah er I think Jay in this movie plays very well. And he ex ex express his idea of er ah.
T: Of romance.
S5: Of romance.
T: Of romance.
S5: Of romance.
本例的学习者S5在评论电影主人公时,认为主人公表达了某种思想,可是在提取该种思想的准确词汇时碰到了问题,以致连续出现了两个填充词er和ah。这时候,教师进行了提示并启动修补。在下一话轮中,学习者领会了教师的意图,用重复的方式做出了自我修补。
以上实践得出,教师的修补启动具有提升注意力、留住面子、促进习得、帮助输入与输出等作用。
4. 结语
我们认为,在二语课堂互动环境下,修补的启动者应为教师或其他学习者。其修补的轨迹为三话轮模式即阻碍源话轮、修补启动话轮和修补话轮;因此,修补启动位在第二话轮。在修补过程中,教师会凭借各种修补启动技巧来启动修补,以便帮助学习者提升注意力,实现可理解性输入与输出,从而习得语言。
从语料也不难看出,我国外语教师的修补启动技巧无论从形式上还是数量上尚欠不足,对启动策略的运用意识也不够强。
因此,在组织外语教学过程中,教师应认识到自我修补以及修补启动对提高课堂教学质量以及帮助学习者习得语言所起的作用,重视对学习者会话自我修补能力的开发和培养,给予他们足够的机会通过形式协商来自我修补语言形式上的错误。同时,在启动修补时,选择合适的修补启动形式和启动位,掌握一定的修补启动策略,使学习者的自我修补得以实施,从而帮助学习者习得语言。
同时,学生也应正确理解会话自我修补在外语习得中所起的作用,自觉运用各种修补策略来提高自身的交际能力,并对教师的修补启动以及各种技巧有充分的认识,提高修补反应能力以及对言语错误实施修补的能力。
教师的修补启动直接关系到学习者是否完成成功的修补。成功的修补有助于课堂互动,能有效地促进学习者习得外语。本研究只是基于英语视听说语料对该问题做了一些探索,相信,随着语料的不断丰富和完善以及研究的深入,围绕修补及其启动以及对学习者习得外语的影响等研究课题,会有更多的发现。
附注
① 例1和例2来自Santa Barbara美国英语口语语料库(简称SBC)。
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(责任编辑吴诗玉)
Abstracts of Major Papers in This Issue
Foreign Language Classroom Research: Retrospects and Prospects, by XU Jinfen, p. 1
From the nature and purpose of foreign language classroom research, this paper first retrospectively reviews the characteristics of foreign language classroom research, namely the method comparison research in the 1960s, the individualized teaching research in the 1970s, the individual learner factor research in the 1980s, and the classroom process research in the 1990s. It then discusses the research foci since the 21st century, such as the classroom interaction and focus-on-form teaching and introduces four main methods of foreign language classroom empirical research including the descriptive research, the experimental research, the ethnographic research, and the correlational research. Finally, it proposes prospects for the future foreign language classroom research from the macro and micro levels in order to provide a reference for researchers.
The Holistic Appraisal Construction in Multimodal History Textbooks, by SHI Chunxu & WANG Zhenhua, p. 8
Following Martin and White’s (2005) appraisal theory on verbal-visual semiotics and in reference to Martin and Rose’s (2007) model on text-image relationship, the paper proposes a theoretical framework on multimodal appraisal and explore the influence of text-image relationship on holistic appraisal construction in the case study of multimodal historical textbooks. Based on statistical analysis, it is found that the text-image relations make inter-modal links and connect them as a comprehensive whole. The proper text-image relations may create synchrony rather than the reverse between verbal appraisal and image appraisal. In the discourse of multimodal historical textbooks, it is shown that expansion outnumbers projection in holistic appraisal construction and multimodal appraisal under different types of text-image relationship is probabilistically related to certain historical genres during the instantiation of evaluation.
Interactions in Linguistic and Multimodal Texts: A Case Study ofPrideandPrejudice, by QU Tao, p. 14
Interactions in linguistic text and multimodal text have long been respectively studied in linguistic field. However, comparative studies on the two kinds of texts are few. With the systemic functional approach, this research has compared a novel chapter with its corresponding film part inPrideandPrejudice, from the aspects of interaction type, degree and means. It is found that interactions between represented participants are similar between the two texts, but there are big differences in interactions between interactive participants and also between represented and interactive participants. This research helps better understand interactions in the two kinds of texts, and also contributes to resemioticization studies in which different semiotic resources are used to realize the same meaning.
A Multimodal Stylistic Study on the Two Covers of Graham Rawle’sWoman’sWorld, by LEI Qian & ZHANG Delu, p. 20
The cover of a novel is itself a multimodal meaning integration of verbal mode, image, typography, layout and color, and it is also integrated with the meaning of the content of the novel. In the present study, two versions of the covers of modern British writer Graham Rawle’sWoman’sWorldare chosen as research objects, and on the basis of the multimodal stylistic framework of Zhang Delu (2012), a new approach to analyze multimodal covers is proposed by adding some new modes, such as typography, layout and color to it. By employing this approach, the multimodal stylistic features and the meaning realizations of the two covers, the inter-semiotic relations of the covers and the integration of the covers and the content of the novel are comparatively studied. The results show that the cover of the 2008 version can more appropriately convey the deep experiential meaning and interpersonal meaning of the novel to readers and fulfill its function.
On the Assessment Framework for Chinese College Students’ Multiliteracies in Foreign Languages, by LIU Rui & ZHANG Delu, p. 26
The assessment of learners is an important part of classroom teaching. On the basis of the research on multiliteracies assessment, the goal of fostering qualified Chinese foreign language personnel and the components of muliliteracies, this article proposes an assessment framework for Chinese college students’ multiliteracies in foreign languages. The assessment of multiliteracies in foreign languages can be done by designing tasks concerned, observing students’ performances and adopting multiple assessment methods in a particular context.
A Cognitive Pragmatic Approach to Referential Ambiguity in Advertisements: A Case Study of Car Ads, by SHEN Xingchen & CHEN Xinren, p. 33
This study adopts a pragma-cognitive approach to referential ambiguity as found in car advertisements. Drawing on Blending Theory (BT) and Relevance Theory (RT), we establish a pragma-cognitive analytical framework for utterance interpretation in communicative context. Within the framework, we depict the procedure of advertisement interpretation as follows: first, the audience of the advertisements construct two input spaces, namely “car” space and “person/car-owner” space, based on the ostensive stimulus (i.e. the language of the advertisements), the immediate context, and related cognitive models stored in long-term memory; then, they will map the content in the input spaces onto the blended space, namely “person-car” space; as a result, they finally acquire a set of weak implicatures and poetic effects intended by the advertisers to help to achieve their communicative goal, that is, to persuade the audience to buy a particular brand of car. We also find that car advertisers choose to emphasize different features depending on the car type, and the identity and need of the potential customers in order to achieve different poetic effects. The study indicates the explanatory power of the pragma-cognitive framework we build for the interpretation of utterances in context and supports the adequate operability and compatibility of integrating RT and BT.
Diachronic Changes of Discourse and Identity Construction: A Historical Sociopragmatic Perspective, by WANG Xueyu, p. 39
Historical socio-pragmatic scholars emphasize the following relation between discourse, interlocutors’ identities and historical socio-context: interlocutors’ identities are constructed discursively, and both identity construction and discursive strategies are constrained by historical socio-context and changes with the contextual development. Based on such a view, the present study attempts to conduct a diachronic analysis of advertisers’ identity construction from the 1980s to the 2000s, focusing on the diachronic changes of identity types and discursive strategies. Besides, the paper illustrates the context sensitivity of identity construction through the analysis of the influence of social cultures and values on identity construction.
Socio-psychological Mechanism Underlying Misleading Vague Language in Advertisements: A Critical Pragmatic Analysis, by QIAN Yonghong, p. 44
Previous studies of advertisements revealed the potentially misleading or deceptive effect of vague language used in advertisements, but failed to explore the socio-psychological mechanism behind the use of misleading or deceptive vague discourse. In view of this research gap, the present study, adopting the methods of audience survey and interview, aims to investigate the socio-psychological factors adapted to by advertisers in the use of misleading vague discourse within the framework of critical pragmatics. The analysis shows that TV shopping advertisers tend to focus on prospective customers’ psychological tendencies (such as blind belief in high technology and authority, pursuit of cheapness and novelty, crowd mentality, etc.) and adapt negatively to those mentalities in the use of vague discourses so as to mislead the customers into buying their products. This study could provide some reference for the government departments concerned in their supervision and management of the TV advertising programs.
Memetic Strategies in Micro-movie Advertisements, by WU Jue & YAO Yayan, p. 49
The replication of a meme goes through such stages as assimilation, retention, expression and transmission. Some transmission strategies can help build a powerful meme. The replication and transmission of memes are also reflected in advertising. One of the factors that contribute to the success of the newly-emerged micro-movie advertisements, to some extent, is the use and transmission of powerful memes. In the micro-movie advertisements named “Sour, Sweet, Bitter and Spicy”, which are made to promote the sugar-free chewing gum of Extra®, there are three major strategies of transmitting the powerful memes, namely the strategy of repetition, the strategy of emotional adaptation, and the strategy of cognitive dissonance. The use of these strategies helps people remember deeply some powerful memes in these micro-movie advertisements.
Pedagogical Content Knowledge for EFL Public Speaking, by FENG Ruimin, p. 52
Pedagogical content knowledge (PCK) has become a widely accepted academic construct. This study investigates the PCK of five EFL (English as a Foreign Language) public speaking teachers. Case study is used as the research method, and the data collection involves class observation, interviews, and documents. A PCK framework grounded in the data is developed for EFL public speaking teachers, which is composed of five core knowledge categories, namely, knowledge of curriculum, language, instruction, students and assessment. There are sets of discrete knowledge within each core knowledge category, which embodies the topic specificity of situated PCK.
ELF: A New Research Topic in International Applied Linguistics, by MA Yan & LI Lisheng, p. 58
With the growing globalization and regional cooperation, English has seen a widespread use in all sorts of settings and has become the common contact language among speakers of different linguacultural backgrounds. This has consequently both challenged and promoted English language teaching. Over the past 15 years or so English as a lingua franca (ELF) has become a popular and booming field that has attracted a great deal of attention and practices within English language education and applied linguistics. After a brief survey of the development of ELF, the current paper defines ELF and then introduces the major findings of research into the nature of ELF in terms of its domains and linguistic levels. The paper ends with some implications of ELF for English language teaching and learning in China.
An Insight into Repair Initiation in L2 Teacher Discourse, by YAO Jianpeng, p. 70
Repair initiation is an important phase in the speech self-repair mechanism in which the initiator sends the repair signal by linguistic and non-linguistic means to the interlocutor for him to repair the speech errors detected. The present paper discusses the teacher repair initiation in the teacher discourse in the L2 teacher-student interactive classroom context in the light of repair initiator, placement and technique and studies the features and the effects of the Chinese English teachers’ repair initiation in the like context based on the data collected.
