齐梦迭(综述),王学敏(审校)
(1.苏州大学研究生部,江苏 苏州 215006; 2.上海交通大学附属第六人民医院麻醉科/ICU,上海 200233)
YAP调节细胞增殖和凋亡作用机制的研究进展
齐梦迭1△(综述),王学敏2※(审校)
(1.苏州大学研究生部,江苏 苏州 215006; 2.上海交通大学附属第六人民医院麻醉科/ICU,上海 200233)
Hippo信号通路从果蝇属到哺乳动物高度保守,在维持组织器官大小中起着重要作用,并参与多种疾病的发生和发展。Hippo信号通路包含多种癌基因和抑癌基因,该通路的异常可导致细胞增殖和凋亡失衡,组织器官过度增生甚至癌变[1]。Yes相关蛋白(Yes-associated protein,YAP)作为Hippo信号通路下游关键的效应因子,通过磷酸化形式调节细胞核内外的信号传递;作为转录共激活因子调节靶蛋白转录因子的活性,最终转录因子对靶基因的调控决定YAP的生物学作用[2]。为了更清楚地了解哺乳动物Hippo-YAP信号通路,现对该信号通路作用机制及涉及的其他信号通路的相关研究进展予以综述。
1哺乳动物Hippo-YAP信号通路
哺乳动物Hippo信号通路主要由3部分组成:多重上游信号分子(包括Fat、Dchs1/2、FRMD6、NF2和KIBRA等)、核心激酶级联反应链(包括Mstl/2、Sav1/WW45、Latsl/2、Mob1和YAP)和下游调节因子(包括TEAD1/4、Wbp-2、p73、RASSF和Ajuba等)[1]。人类YAP基因位于染色体11q22扩增区,编码65 000蛋白;哺乳动物能合成两种多肽链YAP1和YAP2,两者均参与Hippo信号通路;YAP1含有1个WW结构域,YAP2含有2个WW结构域,特异性地识别和结合PPXY基序[3]。YAP通过核心激酶级联反应被磷酸化,磷酸化的YAP继而与14-3-3蛋白偶联被阻断在细胞质中,被泛素依赖的蛋白酶体降解[4]。去磷酸化形式的YAP定位在核内,通过WW结构域与转录因子TEAD家族(TEA domain family)、p73、SMAD家族(BMP通路)、IAP家族(Bric2、Bric5)、ErbB4胞质结合域和PEBP2α等结合,参与细胞增殖和凋亡的调节[5-6]。
2YAP在哺乳动物细胞中的矛盾作用
2.1YAP促进细胞增殖、抑制凋亡研究发现,YAP在多种实体肿瘤组织和肿瘤细胞株中定位于细胞核并过表达(如非小细胞肺癌、肝癌、胃癌、结直肠癌、卵巢癌、前列腺癌等),其与肿瘤的临床分期、转移、放化疗敏感性及预后相关[7-9]。YAP过表达促进了正常组织的生长,甚至导致癌变[10],提示YAP可能作为一种重要的癌基因在肿瘤的发生、发展中发挥重要作用。哺乳动物TEAD转录因子普遍表达,作为YAP在细胞核内的主要目标,对YAP介导的肿瘤细胞过度增殖和上皮间质转化起着关键作用[11]。YAP与TEAD转录因子结合后,促进下游靶基因如Cyclin E、β联蛋白(β-catenin)、AXL (AXL receptor tyrosine kinase)、结缔组织生长因子(Connective tissue growth factor,CTGF)和(Cysteine-rich,angiogenic inducer 61,Cyr61)等的转录,参与细胞增殖、黏附和迁移[12-13]。所以,有报道指出,基因或者药物干扰YAP-TEAD复合体的形成,可以中断YAP介导的细胞增殖效应,YAP-TEAD有望成为抑制肿瘤生长的新靶点[14]。
2.2YAP促进细胞凋亡、抑制增殖乳腺癌组织中YAP阳性率显著低于正常乳腺组织,剔除YAP乳腺癌细胞表现出更强浸润力及转移能力;动物模型中,剔除该基因的裸鼠乳腺癌发生早且生长迅速[15-16],提示YAP在乳腺癌中可能作为一种抑癌基因。研究发现,p73作为YAP下游的目标转录因子,基因毒性应激DNA损伤时,活化的YAP入核后,YAP蛋白的WW结构域与p73蛋白的PPXY基序结合,调节p73转录活性,增加下游促凋亡蛋白(如Bax和Puma)的转录[17-18];而且利用干扰小RNA技术沉默YAP基因的表达后,降低p73介导的细胞凋亡[19]。另外,核内YAP与ItchE3泛素连接酶竞争结合到p73的PPXY基序,使p73逃脱ItchE3介导的泛素化降解,增加p73蛋白的稳定性[20]。可见,YAP通过增加p73活性和抑制其降解两条途径促进p73介导的细胞凋亡。因此,一些学者提出,YAP作为癌基因或抑癌基因与具体的内环境及肿瘤本身有关;YAP促增殖和促凋亡的双重作用可能是对不同的转录因子选择性调节的结果,主要受TEAD和p73的调节[21]。YAP是否以及多大程度上与TEAD、p73或者其他转录因子结合,似乎与上游信号及激酶有关。
3YAP多重作用机制所涉及的信号通路
虽然Hippo-YAP途径中关键成分及作用日趋明确,但是调节Hippo途径的上游信号及YAP下游的效应因子及具体的作用机制尚不清楚。哺乳动物雷帕霉素靶蛋白(the mammalian target of rapamycin,mTOR)、磷脂酰肌醇3-激酶/蛋白激酶B(phosphoinositide 3 kinase / protein kinase B,PI3K/Akt)和Wnt /β联蛋白(Wnt/β-catenin)等信号通路,在调控细胞的增殖和凋亡中扮演着重要的角色[22-24]。诸多研究证明Hippo信号通路与以上通路及蛋白之间存在多重而复杂的相互作用,共同调控机体复杂的细胞生物学行为。
3.1YAP与mTOR信号通路在哺乳动物细胞mTOR通路可以感受生长因子和营养水平,通过磷酸化两种效应因子调节细胞分裂和增殖,mTOR在很多肿瘤细胞中表达上调[22]。有研究发现,在果蝇属生长因子信号影响Hippo通路,过表达Yki增加了mTOR底物的磷酸化,表明Hippo通路和mTOR途径之间存在着潜在的联系[25]。在哺乳动物细胞,mTOR和Hippo-YAP是调节细胞生长的两条关键信号转导通路,YAP通过miR-29(micro RNA-29)和PTEN(phosphatase and tensin homologue)来调节与mTOR通路之间的 “串话”(cross-talk)[26]。剔除Mst1/2-/-或者Lats1/2-/-小鼠,YAP活性增加,从而使PTEN的表达明显降低,mTOR底物磷酸化水平增加[27],更强调了通过YAP对PTEN的调节在Hippo与mTOR之间交叉的重要性。
3.2YAP与PI3K/Akt、胰岛素样生长因子/蛋白激酶B(insulin-like growth factor/protein kinase B,IGF/Akt)信号通路PI3K/Akt和IGF/Akt信号通路在细胞物质代谢、细胞周期调控、细胞增殖和凋亡中发挥重要作用。以上两条途中蛋白激酶B(protein kinase B,Akt)都扮演着重要角色,且参与YAP的促凋亡和促增殖作用[19,28]。最初有研究认为,DNA损伤时Akt在Ser127位点磷酸化YAP,从而抑制YAP入核与p73结合,抑制Aβ25-35诱导的神经元凋亡过程[19]。然而,在肝癌细胞系通过IGF/Akt途径活化YAP促进细胞增殖,Akt抑制剂也抑制YAP活性及下游靶基因CTGF的表达,抑制细胞增殖,诱导细胞凋亡[25,29]。可能是由于YAP对细胞增殖和凋亡的双重影响,所以在不同的细胞及内环境下,Akt对YAP的调节会产生不同的结果。在果蝇属YAP同源蛋白Yki正向调节了Akt的表达及活性,活化Hippo途径降低Akt的表达[23]。另外,在髓母细胞瘤中发现癌基因YAP通过诱导IGF的表达及Akt的活化增加细胞的放射抵抗,促进放疗后肿瘤细胞的生长[28];增加心肌梗死后心肌细胞的再生[30]。Akt与YAP之间是否存在一种正反馈机制,活化的YAP可以通过Akt调节细胞的生长等问题还需进一步探讨。
3.3YAP与Wnt/β-catenin信号通路Wnt信号通路是一个复杂的蛋白质作用网络,该信号途径中β-catenin是一种多功能蛋白,定位于胞质时被Axin/APC/ GSK3β复合物降解,而Dvl则可抑制降解复合物的活性;β-catenin入核后作为T细胞因子/淋巴细胞增强因子(T cell factor/ lymphoid enhancing factor,TCF/LEF)的转录共刺激因子调节靶基因的表达[24]。研究证明,YAP抑制Wnt/β-catenin通路活性有赖于Hippo信号通路对YAP的磷酸化及胞质定位[31]。过表达YAP抑制结直肠癌细胞的生长,YAP低表达的结直肠癌患者临床预后差,主要是因为表达在胞质中的YAP限制Dvl及β-catenin入核,从而抑制Wnt通路[32-33]。相反,核内的YAP通过与β-catenin结合并活化其下游靶基因的转录,促进心肌细胞和结肠癌细胞的增殖[33-34]。然而,YAP/β-catenin之间似乎也存在一种正反馈机制。Wnt信号可以促进YAP/TAZ(Transcriptional co-activator with PDZ-binding motif)的表达;β-catenin/TCF4复合物在YAP基因的第1个内含子位置与DNA增强子结合,调节YAP的表达,使用小发卡RNA降低β-catenin的表达;同时也降低YAP 信使RNA及蛋白水平的表达[35-36]。因此,YAP对Wnt/β-catenin信号通路的调节具有多样性,同时YAP与β-catenin之间存在相互调节。
3.4其他信号通路转化生长因子β(transforming growth factor-β,TGF-β)通过胞内信号分子SMADs蛋白转导信号,具有抑制生长、促进细胞分化等多种作用。YAP作为转录共激活因子,参与SMADs蛋白的转录,从而对TGF-β参与的信号通路产生影响[37]。Notch信号通路通过相邻细胞之间的相互作用调节细胞、组织、器官的分化和发育;Hippo信号通路抑制Notch 信号,参与细胞分化、增殖和卵母细胞极性的调节[38]。YAP通过上调Jag-1活化Notch信号,促进结肠癌细胞的生长且与结肠癌患者的临床预后有关[39]。c-Jun氨基端激酶信号转导通路是丝裂原活化蛋白激酶(mitogen-activated protein kinases,MAPK)通路的一重要分支,研究认为,c-Jun氨基端激酶1/2作为YAP上游的激酶,在多位点磷酸化内源性YAP,促进YAP的促凋亡效应[40]。所以,YAP促增殖或促凋亡效应似乎与上游的激酶及翻译后修饰有关。
4小结
Hippo信号通路是调控机体内环境稳态重要的信号通路,人体多种肿瘤的发生、发展都与Hippo信号通路尤其是YAP的表达异常有关。在各种癌细胞中,YAP扮演着癌基因和抑癌基因的双重角色,不能仅仅以剔除YAP基因,降低YAP蛋白的表达作为癌症治疗的靶点。所以深入研究哺乳动物Hippo信号通路及其与其他信号通路形成的网络结构,将为疾病的预防、诊断和治疗提供新的思路和方法。
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摘要:Hippo信号通路首先在果蝇属中发现,在哺乳动物高度保守,通过调节细胞增殖和凋亡维持器官大小和机体内环境的稳态。Yes相关蛋白(YAP)是Hippo信号通路的关键效应分子,作为转录共激活因子扮演着癌基因和抑癌基因的矛盾角色。YAP去磷酸化后活化,入核参与细胞增殖和凋亡的调节;其中涉及哺乳动物雷帕霉素靶蛋白(mTOR)、磷脂酰肌醇3-激酶/蛋白激酶B(PI3K/Akt)、Wnt /β联蛋白(Wnt/β-catenin)等信号通路。该文对哺乳动物Hippo-YAP信号通路调节细胞增殖和凋亡作用机制的研究进展予以综述。
关键词:哺乳动物;Hippo-Yes相关蛋白;增殖;凋亡
Research Progress on YAP in the Regulation of Proliferation and ApoptosisQIMeng-die1,WANGXue-min2.(1.PostgraduateSection,SoochowUniversity,Suzhou215006,China; 2.DepartmentofAnesthesiology/ICU,theSixthPeople′sHospital,ShanghaiJiaotongUniversity,Shanghai200233,China)
Abstract:Hippo signaling pathway was first discovered in Drosophila,and was highly conservative in mammalian.It governs organ sizes and internal environment homeostasis through regulation of cell proliferation and apoptosis.YAP is the key effector in Hippo signaling pathway,as a transcriptional coactivator plays a contradictory role of oncogenes and tumor suppressor genes.YAP is activated by dephosphorylation in the nucleus,then regulates the cell proliferation and apoptosis,which involves mTOR,PI3K-Akt,Wnt/β-catenin signaling pathways.Here is to make a review of the mechanisms of mammalian Hippo-YAP signaling pathway in the proliferation and apoptosis.
Key words:Mammalian; Hippo-Yes-associated protein; Proliferation; Apoptosis
收稿日期:2014-04-02修回日期:2014-07-30编辑:郑雪
doi:10.3969/j.issn.1006-2084.2015.06.013
中图分类号:R730.2; R730.7
文献标识码:A
文章编号:1006-2084(2015)06-0994-03