硬脑膜动静脉瘘的血管内治疗进展

2014-09-26 03:14吴云张紫寅
中国医药科学 2014年16期

吴云?张紫寅

[摘要]硬脑膜动静脉瘘是指发生在硬脑膜及其附属物上的异常动静脉分流,目前主要的治疗方式为血管内治疗和开颅手术治疗,但血管内治疗具有较好疗效。本文对血管内治疗的常用方法、适应证、并发症及术后评价的最新进展进行综述。

[关键词]硬脑膜动静脉瘘;血管内治疗;海绵窦;微弹簧圈

[中图分类号] R743.3 [文献标识码] A [文章编号] 2095-0616(2014)16-34-04

Advance research of the intravascular treatment in dural arteriovenous fistula

WU Yun ZHANG Ziyin

Department of Neurosurgery,Meishan People's Hospital,Meishan 620010,China

[Abstract] Dural arteriovenous fistula is anomalous arteriovenous shunt occurred in the dura mater.The main treatment occludes endovascular treatment and craniotomy,but the endovascular treatment is more effect and safe.In this paper,a method commonly used in endovascular therapy,indications,complications,and postoperative evaluation of the latest developments were reviewed.

[Key words] Dural arteriovenous fistula;Endovascular treatment;Cavernous;Micro-coil

硬脑膜动静脉瘘(dural arteriovenous fistulae,DAVF)是指发生在硬脑膜及其附属物上的异常动静脉分流,其发病率约占颅内动静脉畸形的10%~15%,其发生部位以海绵窦、乙状窦及横窦多见[1]。DAVF目前主要的治疗方式包括保守治疗、血管内治疗、外科开颅手术、立体定向放射治疗,也可采取上述几种方式联合治疗[2]。近来,随着神经介入器材及技术的进步,血管内治疗已成为此类疾病可靠而有效的治疗方式[3]。

1 病因及发病机制

DAVF的病因及发病机制相当复杂,目前对其尚无统一的定论,属于先天性疾病还是后天性疾病仍然存在较大争议[4-5]。自发现DAVF以来,其就被认为是颅内动静脉畸形的一种,是由于硬脑膜血管发育异常造成的,属于先天性疾病。少数病例报道婴幼儿DAVF常与脑囊性动脉瘤、先天性心脏病及脑动静脉畸形等疾病并存,提示DAVF有先天性因素[6]。但关于婴幼儿DAVF的报道比较少见,且胚胎、病理、影像及临床等方面的依据仍然不够充分,故尚不能完全认定DAVF是先天性疾病[7]。国内外大部分研究[8]表明DAVF是后天获得性疾病,主要与静脉窦血栓关系密切,还与颅内肿瘤、激素改变、静脉窦炎症、头部外伤及耳部感染等因素有关。有学者

通过建立静脉窦高压动物模型已经证实,静脉窦高压在DAVF的形成过程中起举足轻重的作用[9]。静脉窦血栓形成引起静脉窦高压,导致硬脑膜内微小血管异常交通形成。硬脑膜内微小血管异常交通的发展再次加重静脉狭窄或闭塞,最终导致动脉与硬脑膜静脉的直接交通。此外,血管原性生长因子的释放如血管内皮生长因子与碱性成纤维母细胞生长因子可促使新生血管形成及DAVF的发展。

2 临床表现

DAVF的症状主要与瘘口的位置及引流静脉类型密切相关,其临床症状轻重不一,由轻微到恶性症状不等。个别病例可自愈或长期无症状性缓慢进展。瘘口的部位不同引起的临床症状有较大差异,如海绵窦区的DAVF引起的症状和体征与颈动脉海绵窦瘘大致相同,表现为搏动性突眼、眼球突出、球结膜充血水肿等眼部症状;而横窦区及乙状窦区的DAVF 典型症状为患侧颞部听诊闻及搏动性颅内血管杂音;另外静脉引流方向同样决定DAVF的临床表现:(1)引流静脉主要向皮层静脉引流时,则引起蛛网膜下腔出血的机率增加;(2)引流静脉血流方向为顺流时,则表现为动静脉短路引起的颅内缺血及颅内血管杂音等表现;(3)引流静脉血流方向为逆流时,除了顺流引起的临床症状外,还表现为颅内静脉高压的表现,如静脉迂曲、扩张及血管壁变薄,

可引起剧烈头痛、颅内出血等症状。研究认为DAVF的静脉引流模式是预测颅内出血及预后最重要的因素。评估与此相关的脑血管造影表现包括:皮层静脉的逆向引流、静脉曲张或静脉瘤样结构以及深静脉引流。

3 分类

DAVF分类不一,根据病灶部位可以分为前颅底DAVF、中颅底DAVF、后颅底DAVF及海绵窦旁DAVF。根据病变范围分为:单纯性DAVF,即病灶范围局限于硬脑膜;混合性DAVF,包括:(1)脑膜-脑动静脉畸形,病变累及部位在硬脑膜静脉窦或硬脑膜静脉,皮层动脉参与供血,静脉引流方向主要为硬脑膜静脉窦;(2)头皮、颅骨、硬脑膜复合动静脉瘘:病变累及头皮、颅骨和硬脑膜,瘘口较大,盗血体征明显,供血动脉显著扩张,病灶主要由颈外动脉分支和椎动脉肌支供血,引流静脉主要为表腔静脉、板障静脉和脑皮层静脉。亦有多种分类方式用来评估DAVF血管造影解剖的意义,即静脉引流模式与临床表现及预后的关系[10]。较常用的有Borden分型和Cognard分型(表1、表2)。前者仅分为三个亚型,临床上简单易用。后者详细阐述了引流模式,包括是否正常引流、或逆向引流,皮层静脉引流是否存在。Cognard分型更加精确的比较了临床表现与影像学特征,而且包括了向脊髓周围引流的引流模式。endprint

4 影像学检查

目前用于DAVF疾病的影像学检查主要有CTA、CTV、MRA、MRV及全脑血管造影等方式。CT、MRI检查具有无创、检查简单及易普及性,被作为此类疾病的首选检查方法。头颅CT扫描对DAVF引起的继发性改变,如颅内出血、静脉窦血栓形成的检出率极高。MRI平扫具有脑实质内异常迂曲扩张的血管流空现象,MRA动脉远端或颅外动脉有大量扩张的侧支动脉形成,MRV脑静脉窦部分闭塞或脑静脉缺如等,高度提示有DAVF形成。CT及MRI能准确显示DAVF的供血动脉及引流静脉情况,但不能显示瘘口处血流变化及颅内外危险吻合情况。DSA可以较好的显示出DAVF本身所固有的特征,包括瘘口的部位,多发瘘口血供的特点,静脉引流方式,甚至可以间接地了解瘘口血流量的大小及颅内血液动力学特征,是确诊本病的“金标准”。因此,结合临床表现,行颅脑CT和磁共振检查时,如发现可疑硬脑膜动静脉瘘,应及时进行DSA检查。

5 治疗

5.1 治疗原则

DAVF的理想治疗目的是永久完全地闭塞硬脑膜动静脉壁上的瘘口、颅内血液循环恢复正常、控制无效分流、临床症状完全消失。目前尚无一种理想的方法能够完全闭塞所有的瘘口。目前其主要治疗方式包括保守治疗,外科开颅手术治疗,血管内治疗,放射治疗,也可上述几种方式联合应用。究竟采取何种治疗方式最佳,目前尚无定论,大部分学者[11]根据Cognard分型法提出如下治疗原则:Ⅰ型先行颈动脉压迫,无效者可用经动脉栓塞术;Ⅱa型先行经动脉颗粒栓塞术,无效者可用NBCA栓塞或经静脉栓塞;Ⅱa+Ⅱb型可经动脉栓塞、手术切除静脉窦和经静脉栓塞;Ⅲ~Ⅴ型具有侵袭性,可采用血管内介入治疗、手术治疗、放射治疗和综合治疗。也可按照Borden分类法,Ⅱ及Ⅲ型的患者均需要治疗,特别是引流静脉迂曲且呈瘤样扩张,则需要立即治疗,防止其破裂出血。对于BordenI型的DAVF是否需要治疗,则存在较大的争议。不主张积极治疗者认为BordenI型有可能长期不进展,甚至有自愈的可能性,若采取不恰当的治疗方式可能增加另外的供血动脉,使瘘口更加弥散,增加了出血的风险及治疗的难度。主张积极治疗者认为其有可能会有进一步进展的可能。综合国内外文献得出,存在下述表现的BordenI型患者应该治疗:(1)有影响生活的剧烈头痛和颅内杂音,且无法耐受者;(2)有颅内压增高表现,影像学检查提示有较大颅内出血风险者;(3)有局灶性神经功能障碍,进行性加重。本文主要就DAVF的血管内治疗进展作一综述。

5.2 血管内治疗

5.2.1 经动脉途径 经动脉入路栓塞治疗DAVF是应用血管内治疗最经典、最早及有效的治疗方案,栓塞材料可以为真丝线段、NBCA胶、ONYX胶及微弹簧圈等。经动脉途径的适应症为[12]:(1)颈内动脉或椎动脉的脑膜支供血时,栓塞是能避开正常脑组织的供血动脉;(2)若以颈外动脉供血为主,则要造影时确认无危险吻合,或者栓塞时能够避开危险吻合。目前国内外报道使用最多栓塞剂为ONYX胶,且均达到了满意的临床效果。如果供血动脉粗大、瘘口相对较大、血流量大,主张首先使用微弹簧圈先栓塞一部分瘘口,再使用ONYX胶或NBCA胶栓塞残余瘘口;若供血动脉细小、瘘口众多,血流较缓慢,瘘口呈筛眼网状分布,则可直接使用NBCA胶或ONYX胶栓塞。目前很少运用PVA颗粒栓塞DAVF,原因为无法清楚地观察到PVA颗粒返流情况,且PVA颗粒很容易进入静脉系统,从而引起致命地肺栓塞,目前仅用于以颈外动脉分支供血的部分DAVF,且一般选择PVA颗粒的直径应较大。新型血管内液体栓塞剂Onyx是由次乙烯醇异分子聚合物(Ethylene-vinyl alcohol copolymer,EVOH)、二甲基亚砜(Dimethyl sulfoxide,DMSO)及钽粉微粒按照一定比例组成的混悬液,由于其具有良好的弥散性、较快的聚合性、较高的粘滞性、相对不粘管性、良好的可控性及反复推注性,目前已广泛地应用于DAVF的栓塞中[13]。经动脉途径栓塞的优势在于:颈动脉途径简单易操作,通过Onyx胶既能达到完全闭塞瘘口的目的且又不影响静脉窦的正常回流,应作为DAVF的首选。操作过程中应注意:使用Onyx胶栓塞时一定要在路图下进行操作,避免Onyx胶通过危险吻合进入其它颅内正常的供血动脉分支;选择供血动脉时一定要选择返流空间大、走形较直的血管,避免返流过长引起滞管;栓塞时若出现返流,则应立即停止注胶,等待约2~3min后再次注射,通过注射-返流-等待-再注射的方式改变Onyx胶的流动方向,达到理想栓塞的目的。

5.2.2 经静脉途径 经静脉途径是指通过股静脉窦途径到达瘘口,通过注射Onyx胶栓塞瘘口,同时还可以使用溶栓药打通静脉窦血栓及释放支架解决静脉窦狭窄的问题。其主要适应症为[14]:(1)经动脉途径无法到达瘘口者;(2)静脉窦急性血栓形成需要急性溶栓者;(3)静脉窦狭窄需要安置支架者;(4)Cognard分型为Ⅱ-Ⅳ型者。此途径的主要优点在于:(1)可以避免经动脉途径栓塞不能完全闭塞瘘口,使侧支循环更加丰富,导致病情反复或者加重;(2)可避免经动脉途径时,栓塞剂通过危险吻合到达其他供血动脉导致误栓等并发症;(3)当引流静脉或静脉窦无正常引流静脉时,可以直接栓塞,闭塞瘘口,使一次性治愈率较动脉入路提高。但是经静脉途径栓塞DAVF依然存在下列问题[15-17]:对BordenⅡ型患者,如瘘口末闭全而将静脉窦堵塞,正常回流进一步受阻,反而加重皮层返流;对BordcnⅡ型小脑幕DAVF,常需经深静脉途径才能达到瘘口,深静脉壁薄,易出血,且容易引起静脉性脑梗塞[18]。

综上所述,目前随着神经介入技术及器材的发展,血管内治疗DAVF的治愈率不断提高,已成为治疗治疗该病的首选治疗方案[19]。但由于该病非常复杂,通过术前脑血管造影仔细评估患者瘘口大小、部位、供血动脉、引流静脉及血流动力学等因素成为血管内栓塞的关键,随着对该病的深入研究,对该病的治疗将会取得新的进展[20-21]。endprint

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(收稿日期:2014-06-13)endprint

[参考文献]

[1] Gross BA,Du R.The natural history of cerebral dural arteriovenous fistulae[J].Neurosurgery,2012,71(3):594-602.

[2] Shi ZS,Loh Y,Gonzalez N,et al.Flow control techniques for Onyx embolization of intracranial dural arteriovenous fistulae[J].J Neurointerv Surg,2013,5(4):311-316.

[3] Wajnberg E,Spilberg G,Rezende MT,et al.Endovascular treatment of tentorial dural arteriovenous fistulae[J].Interv Neuroradiol,2012,18(1):60-68.

[4] Tsimpas A,Heros RC.Stereotactic radiosurgery with or without embolization for intracranial dural arteriovenous fistulae[J].Neurosurgery,2011,69(3):E789-90.

[5] 张紫寅,王朝华,谢晓东,等.微弹簧圈栓塞难治性外伤性颈动脉海绵窦瘘的疗效观察[J].介入放射学杂志,2011,20(7):518-521.

[6] Saraf R,Shrivastava M,Kumar N,et al.Embolization of cranial dural arteriovenous fistulae with ONYX: Indications,techniques,and outcomes[J].Indian J Radiol Imaging,2010,20(1):26-33.

[7] Stiefel MF,Albuquerque FC,Park MS,et al.Endovascular treatment of intracranial dural arteriovenous fistulae using Onyx:a case series[J].Neurosurgery,2009,65(6):132-139.

[8] 张紫寅,王朝华,谢晓东.颈动脉海绵窦瘘的血管内治疗[J].解剖与临床,2010,15(5):382-384.

[9] Hirata E,Higashi T,Iwamuro Y,et al.Angioplasty and stent deployment in acute sinus thrombosis following endovascular treatment of dural arteriovenous fistulae[J].J Clin Neurosci,2009,16(5):725-727.

[10] Nogueira RG,Dabus G,Rabinov JD,et al.Onyx embolization for the treatment of spinal dural arteriovenous fistulae:initial experience with long-term follow-up.Technical case report[J].Neurosurgery,2009,64(1):E197-198.

[11] 文雯,张紫寅,郭海志,等.外伤性颈动脉海绵窦瘘的诊疗进展[J].临床合理用药杂志,2012,5(9B):168-170.

[12] Matsumaru Y.Treatment strategy for dural arteriovenous fistulae[J].No Shinkei Geka.2006,34(4):351-363.

[13] Guillevin R,Vallee JN,Cormier E,et al.N-butyl 2-cyanoacrylate embolization of spinal dural arteriovenous fistulae:CT evaluation,technical features,and outcome prognosis in 26 cases[J].AJNR Am J Neuroradiol,2005,26(4):929-935.

[14] Macdonald JH,Millar JS,Barker CS.Endovascular treatment of cranial dural arteriovenous fistulae:a single-centre,14-year experience and the impact of Onyx on local practice[J].Neuroradiology,2010,52(5):387-395.

[15] Singh V,Smith WS,Lawton MT,et al.Risk factors for hemorrhagic presentation in patients with dural arteriovenous fistulae[J].Neurosurgery,2008,62(3):628-635.

[16] Dützmann S,Beck J,Gerlach R,et al.Management,risk factors and outcome of cranial dural arteriovenous fistulae:a single-center experience[J].Acta Neurochir(Wien),2011,153(6):1273-1281.

[17] Ziyin Zhang,Kun Yang,Chaohua Wang,et al.Congenital Pial Arteriovenous Fistula in the Temporal Region Draining into Cavernous Sinus:A Case Report[J].Korean J Radiol,2013,14(3):497-500.

[18] Zhang Z,Chen Y,Tang JJ,et al.Frequent loss expression of dab2 and promotor hypermethylation in human cancers:A meta-analysis and systematic review[J].Pak J Med Sci,2014,30(2):432-437.

[19] Rivera R,Blanc R,Piotin M,et al.Single hole cerebral arteriovenous fistula between the anterior choroidal artery and the basal vein of Rosenthal in a child[J].Childs Nerv Syst,2009,25(11):1521-1523.

[20] Ji Yeoun Lee,Young-Je Son,Jeong Eun Kim.Intracranial Pial Arteriovenous Fistulas[J].J Korean Neurosurg Soc,2008,44(2):101-104.

[21] 钟海,白茫茫,李健. 硬脑膜动静脉瘘的认识及其血管内栓塞的治疗进展[J].中国当代医药,2014,21(14):192-193.

(收稿日期:2014-06-13)endprint

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[2] Shi ZS,Loh Y,Gonzalez N,et al.Flow control techniques for Onyx embolization of intracranial dural arteriovenous fistulae[J].J Neurointerv Surg,2013,5(4):311-316.

[3] Wajnberg E,Spilberg G,Rezende MT,et al.Endovascular treatment of tentorial dural arteriovenous fistulae[J].Interv Neuroradiol,2012,18(1):60-68.

[4] Tsimpas A,Heros RC.Stereotactic radiosurgery with or without embolization for intracranial dural arteriovenous fistulae[J].Neurosurgery,2011,69(3):E789-90.

[5] 张紫寅,王朝华,谢晓东,等.微弹簧圈栓塞难治性外伤性颈动脉海绵窦瘘的疗效观察[J].介入放射学杂志,2011,20(7):518-521.

[6] Saraf R,Shrivastava M,Kumar N,et al.Embolization of cranial dural arteriovenous fistulae with ONYX: Indications,techniques,and outcomes[J].Indian J Radiol Imaging,2010,20(1):26-33.

[7] Stiefel MF,Albuquerque FC,Park MS,et al.Endovascular treatment of intracranial dural arteriovenous fistulae using Onyx:a case series[J].Neurosurgery,2009,65(6):132-139.

[8] 张紫寅,王朝华,谢晓东.颈动脉海绵窦瘘的血管内治疗[J].解剖与临床,2010,15(5):382-384.

[9] Hirata E,Higashi T,Iwamuro Y,et al.Angioplasty and stent deployment in acute sinus thrombosis following endovascular treatment of dural arteriovenous fistulae[J].J Clin Neurosci,2009,16(5):725-727.

[10] Nogueira RG,Dabus G,Rabinov JD,et al.Onyx embolization for the treatment of spinal dural arteriovenous fistulae:initial experience with long-term follow-up.Technical case report[J].Neurosurgery,2009,64(1):E197-198.

[11] 文雯,张紫寅,郭海志,等.外伤性颈动脉海绵窦瘘的诊疗进展[J].临床合理用药杂志,2012,5(9B):168-170.

[12] Matsumaru Y.Treatment strategy for dural arteriovenous fistulae[J].No Shinkei Geka.2006,34(4):351-363.

[13] Guillevin R,Vallee JN,Cormier E,et al.N-butyl 2-cyanoacrylate embolization of spinal dural arteriovenous fistulae:CT evaluation,technical features,and outcome prognosis in 26 cases[J].AJNR Am J Neuroradiol,2005,26(4):929-935.

[14] Macdonald JH,Millar JS,Barker CS.Endovascular treatment of cranial dural arteriovenous fistulae:a single-centre,14-year experience and the impact of Onyx on local practice[J].Neuroradiology,2010,52(5):387-395.

[15] Singh V,Smith WS,Lawton MT,et al.Risk factors for hemorrhagic presentation in patients with dural arteriovenous fistulae[J].Neurosurgery,2008,62(3):628-635.

[16] Dützmann S,Beck J,Gerlach R,et al.Management,risk factors and outcome of cranial dural arteriovenous fistulae:a single-center experience[J].Acta Neurochir(Wien),2011,153(6):1273-1281.

[17] Ziyin Zhang,Kun Yang,Chaohua Wang,et al.Congenital Pial Arteriovenous Fistula in the Temporal Region Draining into Cavernous Sinus:A Case Report[J].Korean J Radiol,2013,14(3):497-500.

[18] Zhang Z,Chen Y,Tang JJ,et al.Frequent loss expression of dab2 and promotor hypermethylation in human cancers:A meta-analysis and systematic review[J].Pak J Med Sci,2014,30(2):432-437.

[19] Rivera R,Blanc R,Piotin M,et al.Single hole cerebral arteriovenous fistula between the anterior choroidal artery and the basal vein of Rosenthal in a child[J].Childs Nerv Syst,2009,25(11):1521-1523.

[20] Ji Yeoun Lee,Young-Je Son,Jeong Eun Kim.Intracranial Pial Arteriovenous Fistulas[J].J Korean Neurosurg Soc,2008,44(2):101-104.

[21] 钟海,白茫茫,李健. 硬脑膜动静脉瘘的认识及其血管内栓塞的治疗进展[J].中国当代医药,2014,21(14):192-193.

(收稿日期:2014-06-13)endprint