郭影平
(上海理工大学外语学院,上海200093)
报刊英语,“主要指英美报刊,乃至英美记者或专栏作家作品中所使用的英语”[1]。作为英语的一个语体 (genre),报刊英语一直被学者关注和研究。早在20世纪60年代,英国学者David Crystal&Derek Davy就研究过报刊英语[2]。此外,Geoffrey S.Land[3-4]和 美 国 学 者 Brian S.Brooks[5],Paul Sanderson[6],Terry L.Fredrickson & Paul F.Wedel[7]都曾对报刊英语作过深入的研究。在国内先后研究报刊英语的有:王佐良[8]、周学艺[9]、侯维瑞[10]、端木义万[11]、张健[12]、刘宓庆[13]等学者。这些研究内容广泛,包括语篇特点、结构特点、语法特点、修辞特点、词汇特点、标点特点等,对培养报刊英语阅读能力、提高报刊英语阅读水平、了解报刊英语文化知识诸方面有重要的指导意义。但笔者发现,以上研究在报刊英语的词汇方面还有进一步深入的空间。鉴于此,本文试图对报刊英语的词汇特点作进一步的探讨。
总的来说,报刊英语的词汇有六大特点:短小词大量使用,缩略词层出不穷,杜撰词比比皆是,外来词大量涌现,报道国词语偶露峥嵘,次要意义词频繁出现。
大众性、趣味性和节俭性是报刊英语的三大特色[11]7。节俭性要求报刊语言高度浓缩、简洁精炼。为此,新闻记者经常使用简短小词,避免大词冗语;使用确切具体的词,避免晦涩深奥的词[1]347。这些短小词简洁明了、形象生动、表达有力、隽永清新,在一般的文章中很少使用或根本不用。有时即使使用,也和报刊英语中的意思大相径庭。请看下面7个例句,并注意其中的黑体字。
例1 The Chinese government continued Tuesday to duck questions about Xi’s whereabouts.(The Washington Post,Sept.11,2012)
例2 Japanese government officials have made the case that the purchase should do little to fray ties with Beijing.(The Washington Post,Sept.11,2012)
例3 The cancellation of the Clinton meeting was also seen as a possible snub,to show the Beijing leaderships’pique with the Obama administration’s China policies.(The Washington Post,Sept.11,2012)
例4 A prominent Chinese writer has been barred from leaving China to attend a literary festival next week in Australia,the writerand festival officials said on Monday.(The Washington Post,May 2,2011)
例5 On Friday,China’s foreign ministry welcomed the decision,which capped years of exhaustive diplomatic efforts to have Mr.Lai returned to China to stand trial.(New York Times,Jul.27,2011)
例6 A political drive to extend the EU bonus cap beyond the banking sector was stopped in its tracks on Wednesday as the bloc’s main legislative body narrowly voted against strict curbs on retail fund managers’pay.(Financial Times,Jul.3,2013)
例7 Thousands gathered Tuesday in New York,suburban Washington and rural Pennsylvania to mark the 11th anniversary of the Sept.11 attacks,but at the somber day’s biggest venue,Ground Zero in lower Manhattan,this year’s observance was missing a key feature from years past:politicians’voices.(New York Times,Sept.11,2012)
例1中的duck=avoid;例2中的fray=damage,ties=relations;例3中的snub=cold treatment,pique=dissatisfaction;例4中的bar=prevent;例5中的cap=complete;例6中的drive=campaign,curb=control;例7中的mark=celebrate。这样的短小词在报刊英语中比比皆是,不胜枚举。张健教授列出了158个[12]4。而笔者研究发现,这类报刊英语中常用的小词超过200个,限于篇幅,不一一列出。
为了行文简洁、节省篇幅、减少冗长、洁净清新,在有限的版面容纳更多的内容,报刊英语经常使用缩略词,这是报刊英语词汇的第二个特点。缩略词的构成有三种方式[10]261。
(1)由旧词剪短 (clipping)构成,如co-ops(cooperations合作),coml(commercial商业广告),frat(fraternity 博爱),Govt.(government政府),homo(homosexual同性恋),mod(modern现代的),sub(submarine潜水艇),univ(university大学)。
(2)由两个词剪短后再合成,如heliport(helicopter+airport直升飞机场),terrorilla(terrorism+guerrilla 游击恐怖战),Euromart(European+market欧洲市场),humint=(human+intelligence间谍情报),psywar=(psychological+warfare心理战)。
(3)由首字母缩略(acronym)构成,如OPEC(Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries石油输出国组织),SOE(State-Owned Enterprise国有企业),IMF(International Monetary Fund国际货币基金组织),SALT(Strategic Arms Limitation Talks战略武器限制谈判)。
缩略词在报刊英语中的使用频率远远高于其他文体。请看下面例8至例12,并注意其中的缩略词。
例8 And after all,if IAEA does want to cosy up to China,those oil execs are the ones it needs to please,as the report notes.(Financial Times,Apr.1,2011)
IAEA=International Atomic Energy Agency国际原子能机构
execs=executives执行董事
例9 U.S.officials will discuss this week with NATO allies the possibility of establishing a military training mission for Libya’s fledgling security forces,defense officials said Monday,as Defense Secretary Chuck Hagel arrived in Brussels for a meeting of defense chiefs.(The Washington Post,Jun.7,2013)
NATO=North Atlantic Treaty Organization北大西洋公约组织
例10 The treaty bans the development and possession of nukes among ASEAN member nations and requires each state to declare whether nuclear-powered ships or nuclear-armed aircraft are visiting or passing through their territory.(Financial Times,Oct.30,2006)
nukes=nuclear weapons核武器
ASEAN=Association Of Southeast Asian Nations东南亚国家联盟
例11 A recent letter by their(American automobile companies)supportersin theU.S.Congress,all Democrats,have pressured the Obama administration not to accept Japanese participation in TPP talks.(Wall Street Journal,Mar.21,2013)
TPP=Trans-Pacific Partnership跨太平洋伙伴关系
例12 John McCain,who recently traveled to Gitmo with White House ChiefofStaffDenis McDonough,praised theadministration’srenewed efforts on the issue.(Newsweek,Jul.31,2013)
Gitmo=Guantánamo(Bay Prison)关塔那摩湾监狱
现代社会生活的快节奏要求人们说话写文章都要节省时间和篇幅。所以,作为社会资讯传播媒介之一的英语报刊也会越来越多地使用缩略词。最近几十年,英语报刊中的缩略词数量在急剧增加。这是现代英语发展的一大趋势。
英语报刊的首要任务就是报道新近发生的事件。为了引人注目,追求新奇或是为了表达新鲜事物、适应特殊场合的需要,新闻记者经常别出心裁地杜撰一些新词。这些新词有的因为生动形象、构词别致,被人们渐渐接受,最后成为新闻词汇的一部分;有的则在使用一次之后,由于缺乏新意或表达不当,很快被人们遗忘。
例如民主党总统候选人奥巴马 (Barack Obama)在2008年11月大选中击败共和党对手麦凯恩 (John McCain)担任美国总统,并于2012年连任美国总统后,用他名字杜撰的词汇Obamacare(奥巴马倡导的医保计划)、Obamacrime(奥巴马罪行)、Obamacracy(奥巴马式民主)、Obamaian(奥巴马色彩的)、Obamanism(奥巴马政策)、Obamanise(推行奥巴马政策)、Obamanite(奥巴马支持者)、Obamanization(奥巴马政策的执行)、Obamanomics(奥巴马经济政策)等等频频出现在英美各大报刊上。请看下面例13至例17:
例13 Obamacare,conservatives promised,would raise your taxes,take away your doctor and possibly put you in front of a death panel.The fight to keep it from passing was a fight to keep bad things from happening.(The Washington Post,Aug.2,2013)
例14 In the Obamaian universe,the units of the private economy—companies large or small—are satellites orbiting the great fixed planet of public spending.(Wall Street Journal,Feb.27,2013)
例15 Obamacracy in Egypt:Wealthy Arab Tourists Buy Under-aged Egyptian Girls For Sex Slaves.(New York Post,July 2,2012)
例16 Another defect of Obamanomics was that part of the increased spending authorized by the 2009 stimulus bill was held back.(Wall Street Journal,Jun.30,2010)
例17 Thomas A.Daschle,a stalwart Obamanite,nominated to be secretary of the Department of Health and Human Services,did not pay more than$128 000 in taxes over three years,a revelation that poses a potential obstacle to his Senate confirmation.(The Washington Post,Jan.31,2009)
新闻记者通常借助合成、拼缀、派生、逆生、类比等方法杜撰新词。
(1)合成词:把两个或两个以上的词按照一定的次序排列构成的新词。例如:aid-fatigue援助疲劳;infant industry初创企业;skysleeper飞机卧铺;stakeholder利益攸关方;street smarts应对城市生活困难的技能。
(2)拼缀词:由两个截短的旧词再合成而构成的词。例如:c’wealth=commonwealth 联邦;dawk(dove+hawk)中间派;Demopulican(Democratic+Republican)(美国)民主党内的保守派;ecothug(ecology+thug)生态破坏者;edutainment(education+entertainment)寓教于乐。
(3)派生词:把词根与前缀或后缀相结合所构成的词。例如:dehire解雇,deboost减速,deregulate解除管制,detrain下火车。ecocide生态灭绝,ecocrisis生态危机,ecofreak一味关心生态的怪人。nonmusician非音乐家,nonpolitical非政治的,nonevent不重要的事。
(4)逆生词:去掉被误认为的后缀而产生的新词。例如:attrition→to attrit消耗,preemption→to preempt先发制人,escalation→to escalate逐步升级,cosy→to cose使感到舒服,lazy→to laze偷懒,muckraker→to muckrake搜集报道丑闻。
(5)类比词:仿照原有的同类词而创造出的对应词或近似词。例如:由landscape(风景)类比出:cityscape市景,moonscape月景,marscape火星表面,netscape网景。由air pollution(空气污染)类比出:light pollution光污染,noise pollution噪音污染,heat pollution热污染,culture pollution文化污染,vision pollution视觉污染,graffiti pollution涂鸦污染,spiritual pollution精神污染。
下面再看三个含有杜撰词的句子:
例18 The contrast with President Reagan’s antirecession and pro-growth measures in 1981 is striking.Reagan reduced marginal and corporate tax rates and slowed the growth of nondefense spending.(Wall Street Journal,Jun.30,2010)
作者用派生法杜撰了antirecession,pro-growth和nondefence三个词。根据构词法可以猜出其意思分别是“防止经济衰退”、“促进发展”、“非国防的”。
例19 The capsule,containing the astronaut,known as a “taikonaut”,oryunhangyuan in Chinese,is scheduled to orbit Earth before touching down near the Jiuchuan launch station in the Gobi Desert,1 000 miles west of Beijing.(The Washington Post,Oct.15,2003)
2003年10月15日,中国神舟五号载人飞船成功将航天员杨利伟送入太空后,西方各大媒体纷纷予以报道,该句就摘自当天的《华盛顿邮报》。作者John Pomfret杜撰了taikonaut这个词,指“中国宇航员”。taikonaut由taikong太空 (汉语拼音)和astronaut(宇航员)拼缀而构成。此外,作者还用了“宇航员”的汉语拼音yunhangyuan来解释taikonaut。
例20 The strange disappearance from public view of China’s presumptive new leader is turning a year that was supposed to showcase the Communist Party’s stability into something of an annus horribilis.(New York Times,Sept.10,2012)
笔者在新华书店查遍了所有的英汉词典,都没有找到annus horribilis的中文翻译。但是通过分析,很容易发现文章作者是按照拉丁词annus mirabilis(惊喜之年)用类比法杜撰了annus horribilis这个词,不难猜出其意思是“恐怖之年”。了解一定的构词知识对猜测杜撰词词义,提高英语报刊阅读能力大有裨益。
报刊英语词汇的另一个显著特点就是外来词的大量涌现。当新闻记者在报道外国或新近出现的事物时,为了吸引读者的兴趣,或表达某词的内涵,或烘托一种气氛,经常使用外来词。有些外来词由于经常使用,已经完全英语化了,如 kowtow(磕头)、abattoir(屠宰场)、vanilla(香精)、kamikaze(冒险的)等;有些尚未完全英语化,使用时大多印成斜体字,如ad hoc(特别的)、bona fide(真诚的)、de facto(事实上)、debut(初次登台)、en route(在途中)、rapprochement(和睦,亲善)等。
请看例21至例27中外来词,并注意其汉语翻译。
例21 In his(Roh Moo-hyun卢武铉)2002 election campaign,he promised never to kowtow to the Americans .(The Washington Post,May 24,2009)
kowtow来自中文,意思是“磕头”,这里可以译为“屈服”。
例22 NATO lost its raison detre at the end of the Cold War,a view shared by many who live in NATO member countries.(China Daily,Apr.22,1999)
raisondetre来自法语,意思是“存在的理由”。
例23 The quid pro quo that Mr.Bashir is offering is clear:Accept him as legitimate president and set aside the war crimes indictment,and he will allow southern Sudan to go peacefully and will preserve the fragile peace in Darfur.(The Washington Post,May 2,2010)
quid pro quo来自拉丁语,意思是“交换物”。
例24 China is consciously copying the Japanese model of economic development and transforming its state-owned enterprises into Japanese-style zaibatsu.(U.S.News &World Report,Mar.22,1998)
zaibatsu来自日语,意思是“财阀”。
例25 The other party for financial aficionado was thrown by none other than Morgan Stanley Dean Witter Management to open posh new 40 000-squarefoot office in Capital Square on Church Street.(Asian Business,1999,P47)
aficionado来自西班牙语,意思是“狂热爱好者”。
例26 While the coastal region has steamrollered ahead and made China into the world’s factory floor,the western provinces have been exploited than developed—used for their natural resources and a penal colony,a nuclear testing zone and Lebensraum for China’s people.(Prospect,Jun.4,2009)
lebensraum来自德语,意思是“生存空间”。
例27 Words like glasnost(openness)and perestroika(restructuring)began to replacethe gradually outmoded Leninist philosophies that had become warped under Stalin and Andropov.(Foreign Affairs,May 12,2012)
glasnost和perestroika都来自俄语,意思分别是“开放”与“改革”。
随着国际交往日益频繁,英语报刊越来越多地报道他国事务。这样,具有浓郁文化色彩的外来词也频繁出现在英语报刊中。这种外来语对以英语为母语的读者具有很强的吸引力。
所谓“报道国词语”是指新闻报道所涉及国家使用的语言的词汇,而非英语词汇。英语报刊的读者主要是以英语为母语的英美人士。所以,新闻记者为了吸引其读者的眼球,凸显新闻报道国家的特点,偶尔在报道中使用新闻报道国家的语言词汇。这在其他文体中是根本不可能出现的。当然,报道国词语对于以英语为母语的人来说是绝对看不懂的。不过一般情况下,新闻记者会通过使用括号、同位语或定语从句等方式对报道国词语加以解释。请看例28至例32。
例28 In the wake of Kim’s sudden death on Dec.17,it is the military brass who will be firmly in control of the country,even as the young Kim Jong Un formally becomes what the Koreans call the Suryong(supreme leader).(Time,Dec.22,2011)
这里的Suryong是韩语“最高领袖”的意思。
例29 Saddam Hussein outlawed them,but when we paid with American lives to hand Iraq back to Iranian-backed Shiites, mut’ah(temporary marriage),was legalized and is common there now.(New York Post,Jul.2,2012)
这里的mut’ah是阿拉伯语“临时婚姻”的意思。
例30 At the times,only unions were legally permitted to supply labor under a law designed to break yakuza(the Japanese Mafia)control over labours in such industries as stevedoring and construction.(Asian Business,P56,Apr.1996)
这里的yakuza是日语“黑社会”的意思。
例31 The wars were hidden from view.Access was severelyrestricted,especiallyon the Russian side where the most controversial,dangerous and secret work was carried out by the Spetsnaz—Russia’s elite special-forces units.(The Sunday Times,Oct.31,2010)
这里的spetsnaz是俄语“特种部队”的意思。
例32 One of the complaints of the traditional teaching system was that it was geared towards the gaokao,a series of final exams that decided which university a studentcould attend.(FarEastern Economic Review,P43,Jul./Aug.2006)
这里的gaokao是中文“高考”的汉语拼音。
从严格意义上来说,报道国词语还不能算是外来词,因为英语词典没有收录它们。同时,报道国词语也不能算是临时造词,因为它们不是记者临时杜撰的,而是原来就存在的。报道国词语是报刊英语特有的现象。不过,随着使用频率的增加,部分报道国词语最后可能进入外来词语汇。
众所周知,英语的绝大多数单词都是多义词(polysemant),除了原始意义和中心意义,还有派生意义和次要意义。一般来说,词典中词条的第一义项是原始意义或中心意义,后面的义项是派生意义或次要意义。学习一个单词,首先要掌握这个单词的原始意义和中心意义。在此基础上,再掌握其派生意义和次要意义。很多人只知道单词的原始意义和中心意义,而不知道其派生意义和次要意义。新闻记者在撰写新闻报道时,频繁使用单词的派生意义和次要意义。这是报刊英语用词的另一个特点,也是很多人看不懂英语报刊的原因之一。
笔者从《大学英语课程教学要求》[14]的词汇表中随意抽取了10个常用单词,并附上了《牛津高阶英语词典》(第七版)(双解)[15]提供的第一义项释义。除了rhetoric属于“更高要求”之外,其余的全属于“一般要求”词汇。这些词是:cover覆盖,rhetoric修辞,entertain招待,outstanding杰出的,condemn谴责,installation安装,project规划,establishment建立,contain包括,chemistry化学。
但是,只知道这些单词原始意义的读者未必能够正确理解其在下面句子中的含义。这是因为报刊英语常常使用一个单词的派生意义和次要意义,即:第二、第三或更后面的义项。请看例33至例42。
例33 On Saturday night at Adawiya Square,where 200 were shot dead by the Egyptian security forces,I didn’t see any major American TV channels covering the massacre in Egypt.I didn't see the CNN reporters at Adawiya Square who covered the demonstrations in istanbul live over more than 10 hours.(Today’s Zaman 《今日时代报》Jul.29,2013)
这里的cover是第六义项“报道”(report)。
例34 Mr.Panetta’s weeklong mission to Japan,China and New Zealand is intended to show allies that Washington’s strategic rebalancing toward Asia is a reality,not just a rhetoric.(New York Times,Sept.19,2012)
这里的rhetoric是第二个义项“煽动性语言”。
例35 In recent weeks,more Syrians have been entertaining the notion of not only violent resistance,but of imposed no-fly zones,arms transfers,safe havens and even ground troops.(New York Times,Oct.21,2011)
该句中的entertain是第三义项“心存,怀有(想法、希望等)”。
例36 So it is likely that the government will stand behind the some 2.1 trillion renminbi of outstanding ministry ofrailwaysdebts.(New York Times,Aug.15,2011)
这里的outstanding是第二义项“未付款的”。
例37 The third side of the triangle is,of course, low growth itself, which threatens to condemn the whole Continent to a decade of high unemployment.(New York Times,Jul.11,2011)
这里的condemn是第三义项“把……置于困境”。
例38 NATO continued its precision strikes against regime military installations in Tripoli overnight,including striking a known command and control building in the Bab al-Aziziyah neighbourhood shortly after 1800 GMT Saturday.(The Washington Post,May 2,2011)
这里的installation是第三义项“军事设施”。
例39 He(President Obama)also requested a long-term plan to rein in the debt projected to spiral in coming decades as the baby boom generation retires and beginslaying claim to SocialSecurity and Medicare.(The Washington Post,Nov.11,2010)
这里的project是第四义项“预期”。
例40 But Mr.Ishihara has reserved his fiercestattacks for the Japanese establishment,especially the country’s bureaucrats—a sentiment that has resonated with a public weary of governance widely seen as ineffective at best and cronyism at worst.(New York Times,Oct.25,2012)
这里的establishment是第三义项“政府,统治集团”。
例41 “Our rebalance to the Asia-Pacific region is not an attempt to contain China,”Mr.Panetta said Wednesday in a speech to People’s Liberation Army officers and cadets.“It is an attempt to engage China and expand its role in the Pacific.”(New York Times,Sept.19,2012)
这里的contain是第三义项“遏制”。
例42 In his own White House,Mr.Bush is encouraging a different chemistry with the man who has taken his place.(New York Times,Apr.24,1989)
这里的chemistry是第三义项“两人之间的关系”。
遗憾的是,端木义万教授在其编著的《美英报刊阅读教程》[11]一书中不慎把chemistry一词也理解错了。原书132页注释27如下:Under such hermetic conditions,the chemistry has proved volatile and relations explosive.书中的译文是“在这种炼金术般情况下,化学物很容易挥发,关系很容易爆炸”。显然,该句中的“chemistry”不是“化学”,而是“两人之间的关系”。笔者冒昧试译如下:“在这种封闭的环境下,个人之间的关系易于恶化,团体之间的纽带极其脆弱。”
像这样的次要意义词在英语报刊中频频出现,随处可见。所以,在学习英语的过程中,不但要重视词汇量的增加,还要重视词汇义的积累。
英语报刊,内容丰富,包罗万象,不仅是报道新闻的重要媒介,也是“使用新词的庞大机器和杜撰新词的巨大工厂”[11]7。其用词与众不同、别具一格,给读者带来理解上的很大困难。但是,只要读者了解了报刊英语的用词特点,英语报刊阅读能力定会有很大提高。本文探讨了报刊英语的词汇特点,不当之处在所难免,欢迎读者批评指正。
致谢:此文经卢思源教授悉心指导和审阅,在此向卢教授致以诚挚的谢意。
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