王 琰
(广东培正学院,广东 广州 510830)
*收稿日期:2013-10-21
预设理论最早由德国哲学家弗雷格1892年提出。近年来学者们将其引入语言学范畴并已经成为了该领域中重要的研究对象。在本质上,预设就是一种“语用推理”(Levinson 1983), 预设往往由预设触发语引发,即预设产生的语言表达形式。Levinson (1983) 总结出了13种预设触发语:限制性词、反复意义表达词、事实动词、含蓄动词、状态变化动词、评价动词、比较和对比、分裂句、带有强调成分的分裂句、时间状语从句、非限制性定语从句、反事实条件句和疑问句。
导语实则是浓缩的微型新闻。所谓“浓缩” 一方面是指内容上的精简。它应该用最经济、最简明扼要的方式体现出整篇新闻的核心内容或主要观点, 让读者能够对文章梗概一目了然; 另一方面, 是指字数上的浓缩。一般来说, 英语新闻的导语常占据一则新闻的第一自然段,一般以一个或两个完整的句子概括全文。准确的说,就是选择一个最吸引人的新闻事实,突显新闻价值的最大要素。美联社的写作手册里要求一条优秀导语具备10个特点,即提供消息、简短、明晰、简单、直截了当、生动、客观、富于色彩、格调高尚。因而,写作手法的多样性及其鲜明的语言特点使得近年来学者们的研究主要集中在以下几个方面:第一,写作方式。例如,中英文新闻导语语篇结构差异分析( 于航 2004)、 浅析英语新闻稿的导语写作(范玲 2010)等。第二,功能语法。例如,从功能语法的视角论灾难英语新闻导语语言特点与新闻价值(丁晖 2006)等。第三,翻译。例如,功能翻译理论指导下的英语新闻导语汉译(杨冬青 2010)等。 可以看出,对英语新闻导语的研究涵盖了多个方面,但是对导语中的预设机制的研究是空白。而笔者旨在研究预设在导语中的应用方式和作用及其如何帮助导语实现其在新闻中的重要功能。
本研究收集了《纽约时报》中60篇热点新闻的导语。在分析过程中,笔者按照Levinson (1983)总结的十三类预设触发语对收集到的语料运用AntConc 专业统计软件进行了分析。
(一)词汇的预设
1. 限定性词语
限定性词语在新闻导语中运用频率最高。原因在于每句话中都必须要有表述的主题,因而这种指称表达出现在每句话中。例如:
例(1)An ecstatic China finally got its Olympic moment on Friday night. And if the astonishing opening ceremonies of the 2008 Olympic Games lavished grand tribute on Chinese civilization and sought to stir an ancient nation’s pride, there was also a message for an uncertain outside world: Do not worry. We mean no harm. (Aug. 9, 2008)
这是一篇关于奥运会开幕式的报道。这篇导语中有三处用到了不定冠词a/an,预设了这样三个事实:
a.The ecstatic China exists on Friday night.
b.The message exists.
c.There is an uncertain outside.
这样的预设其实就是用最简洁的语言告诉读者三者真实存在。奥运会的开幕让中国感到兴奋和自豪。不确定的外部世界的存在事实上就意味着其他国家的人民不了解中国。传递我们没有危害的信息言下之意就是说明在西方媒体眼里中国一直以来对他国带有恶意。在看似客观的语句中,报道者把自己的观点和评价传递给了读者。
例(2)Powerful earthquakes on the Tibetan plateau have killed hundreds of people and injured many thousands of others. The disaster presents the Chinese authorities with the challenge of another large-scale relief effort following an earthquake in neighboring Sichuan province in May 2008 that killed more than 80,000 people. The remoteness of the affected area will make it all the harder. (April 14, 2010)
这是一篇关于青海地震的报道。在这篇新闻导语中有六处由定冠词the引发的预设。The disaster 就是指青海玉树地震。The Chinese authorities 是指抗震救灾的政府相关部门。The challenge 中的the实际就是大规模救灾工作的难度。而最后两个the 是同样指地震发生的青海玉树。这六个定冠词的使用让新闻语言更加简洁.
2. 含蓄动词
Yale(2000)指出:the use of one implicative verb can bring out its asserted meaning and the non-asserted meaning with the presupposition in it.正如Yale所说“avoid”一词意味着:某一事情总是发生或者阻止某一事情发生。
例(3) On a bustling corner near downtown Shanghai recently, some shoppers avoided the steamed buns sold by Zhu Qinghe in a street-side cubbyhole. Instead, they bought the packaged buns in the freezer section of Hualian, a supermarket chain store in the same building. (May 8, 2011)
这是有关上海染色馒头事件的报道。使用Avoid 作为触发语,预设信息为:没有顾客买朱清和在路边叫卖的馒头。这样的预设让语言更加多样性。
3. 状态动词
例(4) The new United States ambassador to?China, Gary F. Locke, warned China on Tuesday that its undervalued currency, its increasingly restrictive business environment and the rampant theft of intellectual property threatened both the country’s long-term economic prospects and American job growth at a time of continued weakness in the global economy. (Sep.21, 2011)
这篇新闻导语中有两处预设触发。Continue 一词作为预设触发语,读者们可以获知的预设信息是:全球经济一直很疲软。评价动词warn 引发这样的预设信息:中国存在低估人民币,过多限制经济环境和疯狂盗取知识产权的事实。报道者把自己对中国的评价作为预设信息传递给了读者,构建了读者心中中国的不良形象。在全球经济疲软的时期,中国的行为威胁到了中美经济发展甚至美国就业率。这种报道是夹杂了个人情感,是不客观的。
4. 评价动词
例(5) The International Monetary Fund warned China on Tuesday that tight government management of the nation’s banking and financial system was creating “a steady build-up in vulnerabilities” that could eventually damp economic growth. (Nov. 16, 2011)
Warn 一词在这篇导语中充当预设触发语。隐含的信息就是:The tight government management of the nation’s banking and financial system exist. 表明中国的金融业是由政府把持的,并未真正对外开放。 新闻记者用评价动词作为触发语,表明了自己的看法和态度。同时也把这样的观点传递给了西方读者。
5. 反复意义表达词
这一类触发语在新闻导语中也较为常用。重叠词的使用预设了某一行为和状态之前就已经存在了。因而,使用了反复意义表达词的新闻导语简洁明了,避免了重复、啰嗦。例如:
例(6)China on Thursday has again showed its preference for using administrative controls to manage its surging economy, raising down-payment requirements for certain home buyers after announcing that economic growth in the first quarter surged to 11.9% from a year earlier. (April 18, 2010)
这又是一篇西方媒体对中国金融政策的报道。Again 一词的使用引发预设。中国曾经使用行政干预手段管理经济。这样的预设手段同样表明了报道者的立场,主观介入新闻事件。
例(7) A new study by the World Bank and a Chinese government research organization warns that the country’s economic growth is likely to diminish over the next few decades unless China alters its development model and rethinks the role of government in managing the economy. (Fer. 28, 2012)
Rethink 作为触发语,它预设的意思就是中国政府在经济管理方面的角色定位需要反思。其实就是质疑中国政府在经济管理中的职能作用。现行的发展模式和管理定位已经不适合中国经济的发展。上面笔者分析评价动词的语用预设和作用,在这篇新闻导语中也出现了“warn”, 同样的warn 预设了带有作者观点的信息,国家经济增长很有可能在未来几十年放缓。
6. 事实动词
例(8) EUROPE is drowning and needs a lifeline. A series of marathon meetings this week yielded a new set of proposals, but what they depend on is cash — and lots of it, perhaps trillions of dollars — to save Greece and the European banking system and to prevent financial contagion from spreading to Spain, Italy and even France, which would destroy the euro zone as we know it. Where to turn for help? The answer is obvious: China. (Oct. 28, 2011)
这是一篇关于欧洲经济需要中国支持的报道。Know 一词就是预设了这一事实在欧洲借贷会摧毁整个欧元区。读者顺理成章地获知了报道者传递的信息,并且得到了很明确的答案:只有中国才能帮助欧洲。
(二)句法的预设
1. 时间状语从句
时间状语从句通常由连接词when, before, after, as,since 等引导。不管主从句之间是什么关系,时间状语从句都能引发事实预设。根据上面的统计数据,它在新闻导语中运用频率较高。
例(9)Hundreds of people were injured here on Tuesday when a subway train slammed into the rear of another train in a sprawling transit line that opened just last year. The accident cast new scrutiny on the safety record of China’s rapidly modernizing mass transit rail systems. (Sep.25, 2011)
在这篇新闻导语中,when 引导的时间状语从句预设了这样的信息: a subway train slammed into the rear of another train. 不过预设信息仅仅作为次要信息,主要突出在这次事故中有几百人受伤。
例(10)He is widely known as “the crying prime minister,” although he prefers to be called “Grandpa Wen.” Over the past week, as Wen Jiabao toured earthquake-shattered towns and cities across northern Sichuan, he has hollered out words of encouragement to those trapped beneath fallen buildings and shared tearful moments with newly orphaned children. (May 21, 2008)
在这篇导语中,as 连接的从句作为预设触发语预设了这样的事实:Wen Jiabao toured earthquke-shattered towns and cities across norther Sichuan.
根据上述分析可以看出,时间状语从句的使用突出了重要信息,并把次要信息作为了预设的内容。语言因此变得简洁而清楚,传递给读者更多的信息,同时也让导语语言更加多样化。
2. 比较和对比
例(11) Seeking to broaden its appeal to China’s better-educated and perhaps more hip youth, the People’s Liberation Army has dropped a longtime bar to enlisting in the service: now, recruits can spot tattoos on their faces and necks.(November 2, 2011)
这是关于中国征兵制度有所放宽的报道。导语中有两处用到了比较级的形式作为触发语。其一就是Better-educated,其预设信息就是中国以前征召的士兵没有受到良好的教育。其二就是more hip youth, 预设信息就是中国士兵也不时尚。不时尚其实就是说信息闭塞对当下的社会情况并不了解,抨击了中国的军事封闭式的管理。这样的对比就表现出了报道者的个人观点和评价。传递给西方读者人民解放军没有文化,盲目听从政府的形象。
3. 非限制性定语从句
例(12)The Chinese government increased trade tensions with the Obama administration Wednesday evening by unexpectedly imposing antidumping and antisubsidy tariffs on imports of sport utility vehicles and midsize and large cars from the United States. The Commerce Ministry of China, which has conducted atwo-year trade investigation of the American imports, gave no explanation for its decision to impose the duties. (Dec.14, 2011)
这篇新闻导语通过使用非限制性定语从句,使句子更加简练。Which隐含的预设为:The Commerce of Ministry of China has conducted a two-year trade investigation of the American imports.这句话通过预设其实还存在一种对中国商务部的谴责。既然中国商务部对美国进口有近两年的研究,应该对美国进口商品贸易和常规准则等各方面有很深入全面的了解。那么为什么它对这次征收关税的行为不能给予任何的解释呢。
另外“increased”预设了中美政府之间本身就处于贸易紧张的局面,中国增加对美国进口汽车征收反倾销税和反补贴税的行为则加剧了这种状况,将责任推给中国政府。
4. 分裂句
例(13) I have to admit that I read this article filled with concern for and well wishes to Mr. Jobs, his family and to Apple. I hope this is a part of a therapeutic break that he is taking to get his health fully on track and that he will be back as soon as he is feeling up to it. (Jan 7, 2011) 这是一篇关于因为身体原因乔布斯暂离苹果公司的报道。大众都因乔布斯的离开而对苹果公司的未来产生担忧。预设的信息是:He is taking to get his health fully on track during the therapeutic break. 报道者运用分裂句this is…that突出他以及读者的希望:这只是一个有益于健康的短暂离别。由于分裂句的特点,报道者通过使用分裂句强调他所要表达的部分,引起读者更多的关注。
(三) 名词化
近年来,很多学者在研究预设机制的过程中发现预设语还有其他的类型,比如,名词化。Halliday (1994) 多次谈到名词化问题。在讨论语法隐喻时, Halliday 认为, 小句程式变成名词化程式( 即小句名词化) 可能使某些信息丢失。更准确地说, 这些信息并没有丢失, 而是成为预设, 即作者知道他自己要表达的是什么意思, 他以为读者也知道这个意思, 或者认为读者能够通过推理得到这个意思。这就是典型的语用预设。Goatly(2000) 明确指出, 名词化是实现预设的一种手段。程晓堂(2003)也得出结论,名词化词语与一般的限定性描述有本质区别, 所以应该单独列为一种预设语。
因此,笔者大胆地将其单独列为预设手段之一分析在新闻导语中的应用。在收集语料中有两篇使用了名词化。
例(14)A steady rise in U.S. consumer prices in January pointed to persistent inflation pressures despite fresh signs on Wednesday that the declining housing sector remains a drag on the economy. (Fer. 17, 2008)
这是一篇关于美国经济的报道。导语以名词化形式开头。不用名词化的形式表达的形式如下:U.S. consumer prices rose in January, which pointed to persistent inflation pressures despite fresh signs on Wednesday that the declining housing sector remains a drag on the economy. 使用名词化就把美国消费价格持续上涨作为已知的既成事实传递给了读者。
例(15)POWERFUL earthquakes on the Tibetan plateau have killed hundreds of people and injured many thousands of others. The disaster presents the Chinese authorities with the challenge of another large-scale relief effort following an earthquake in neighbouring Sichuan province in May 2008 that killed more than 80,000 people. The remoteness of the affected area will make it all the harder.
在这篇关于青海地震报道的新闻导语中,报道者也使用了名词化形式作为预设语。“chanllege” is 取自句子another large-scale relief effort is challenging. 名词化让句子更加简洁,同时也预设信息作为既成事实传递给读者,读者会认为这次抗震救灾工作是具有挑战性的。
综合以上分析,笔者发现预设触发语运用到了在所有语料中,甚至同一个导语中有时会含有不止一个预设触发语,就是说明同一导语中含有不止一个语用预设。就其功能而言,语用预设的存在一方面让导语保持了文字的经济性,减轻了读者阅读的负担。另一方面突出了重要信息,提高传播的针对性,实现了传播者的意图。