孙 宁(综述),张 蕴,王 林(审校)
(1.天津医科大学总医院干部病房,天津 300052; 2.天津医科大学第二医院心内科,天津 300211)
生长素(Ghrelin)是1999年Kojima等[1]在小鼠和人胃内分泌细胞及下丘脑弓状核中发现的含有28个氨基酸残基的多肽,是生长激素促分泌素受体(growth hormone secretatogue receptor,GHS-R)的内源性配体。人ghrelin的编码基因定位于3p26~p25。目前发现有乙酰化和非乙酰化ghrelin两种,人体中主要为非乙酰化ghrelin,当N端的第3位丝氨酸发生酰化后就是乙酰化的ghrelin、乙酰化ghrelin被认为是最具有生物学活性的形式[2]。Ghrelin能够与其受体GHS-R结合而产生相应的生物学效应。研究发现,GHS-R是G蛋白偶联受体,有1a和1b两型,其中大多数ghrelin的生理作用都是由1a型GHS-R介导的。Ghrelin及其受体广泛存在于心血管系统中,在人的心房细胞、左心室、主动脉弓等部位均发现有ghrelin分泌[3-4],在小鼠的左心室、心房、主动脉等部位均发现其受体GHS-R[4]。由此推断,ghrelin对心血管系统可能具有直接作用。近年来,针对ghrelin与心血管系统关系的研究非常多,大部分研究认为ghrelin对心血管具有保护作用。该文就ghrelin与动脉粥样硬化及其相关疾病的研究进展予以综述。
随着人们生活水平的不断提高,肥胖已经成为心血管疾病的主要危险因素之一。临床研究发现,肥胖人群的血浆ghrelin水平较正常人群显著降低,与腹围、体质量指数等肥胖指标呈负相关[5]。Wadden等[6]的研究也证实,乙酰化ghrelin与体质量及体质量指数呈负相关。乙酰化ghrlein具有调节能量正平衡、促进摄食的重要作用,这些作用主要是通过乙酰化ghrelin刺激磷酸腺苷激活的蛋白激酶,进一步促使下丘脑弓状核释放神经肽,从而起到刺激食欲、增加食物摄取的作用[7-8];乙酰化ghrelin还能与脂肪细胞表面的GHS-R结合,促进脂肪细胞增殖、分化,减少脂肪分解,抑制脂联素表达[9];此外,还具有抑制脂肪细胞凋亡的作用,可能引起肥胖。尽管学术界对非乙酰化gherlin的研究存在争议,但Cederberg等[10]的研究仍然显示,非乙酰化gherlin与青年男性体质量及脂肪的分布情况有一定的关系。
有研究发现,在糖耐量受损的患者中,血浆ghrelin与血压水平呈负相关,且其基因多态性研究也证明了这一相关性的存在[11]。推测其可能的机制主要有以下几点:①ghrelin能够促进血管内皮细胞释放一氧化氮,从而改善内皮功能,扩张外周血管,有利于降低外周阻力[12],在培养的内皮细胞及完整的血管中均发现ghrelin可以通过GHS-R促进一氧化氮合成酶磷酸化而使一氧化氮生成增加[13]。②乙酰化ghrelin能够作用于中枢神经系统,发挥其降低交感神经兴奋性的作用,从而有利于降低血压[14]。③非乙酰化ghrelin能够调节血管内皮细胞的钾离子通道,从而产生内皮依赖的血管舒张作用[15]。然而,与上述研究结论相反,来自日本的一项纳入了638例研究对象的人群研究未发现ghrelin水平与血压相关[16],该研究认为以往的临床研究虽然得出了ghrelin与血压有关的结论,但是没有多变量模型的支持,另一方面,该研究中大量研究对象应用降压药可能对研究结果产生影响,因此还有必要进行更大规模的临床研究确定ghrelin与血压的关系。
在胰岛α细胞及β细胞中均发现有乙酰化ghrelin表达,因此推断ghrelin可能对血糖调节具有一定的影响。目前认为乙酰化ghrelin与非乙酰化ghrelin可能都参与了糖代谢的调节,且研究发现两种ghrelin的血浆水平比与胰岛素抵抗存在相关性,研究还发现降低两者的比值可以提高胰岛素的敏感性,非乙酰化ghrelin可能具有某种拮抗乙酰化ghrelin的作用[5]。临床研究显示,2型糖尿病患者中的血浆ghrelin水平普遍低于非糖尿病的正常对照人群,且血浆ghrelin水平越高,胰岛素抵抗越不明显。在对血糖控制不佳的1型糖尿病患者进行强化治疗的过程中发现,胰岛素能够减少由于ghrelin水平上升导致的大量进食[17];还有学者研究发现,ghrelin可以抑制葡萄糖刺激的胰岛素分泌降低葡萄糖耐量,ghrelin拮抗剂可以改善胰岛β细胞功能[18]。针对动物的实验发现,给予外源性ghrelin可能延缓或预防糖尿病的发生[19];ghrelin基因剔除小鼠的糖异生、肝糖原分解以及胰岛素敏感性均增加[20]。非乙酰化ghrelin的受体目前尚存在争议,但研究发现在糖代谢中可能发挥着非常重要的作用,如促进胰岛β细胞分泌胰岛素[21],影响胰岛素敏感性等[22]。
最近的研究发现,ghrelin可能直接参与体内脂质的代谢。Barazzoni等[23]发现,在小鼠的肝脏中ghrelin可以诱导与葡萄糖及脂肪合成有关基因的表达上调,血三酰甘油的水平可能因此而升高,同时还能减少脂肪酸的氧化磷酸化,从而减少脂质的分解代谢。临床研究也发现,ghrelin可以调节脂质的储存和代谢[24];乙酰化ghrelin与非乙酰化ghrelin水平与高密度脂蛋白胆固醇水平具有相关性,这种关系独立于胰岛素抵抗及体质量指数之外,乙酰化ghrelin水平与高密度脂蛋白胆固醇水平呈正相关,而非乙酰化ghrelin与其相反,呈负相关[5,25]。
在老年高血压患者和2型糖尿病患者中发现ghrelin能够反映动脉粥样硬化的严重程度,并可能作为预测动脉粥样硬化的指标[26-27]。代谢综合征的组成成分都是动脉粥样硬化的危险因素,在代谢综合征的患者中ghrelin水平低于正常对照组[28]。最近一项针对195例急性冠状动脉综合征和88例无症状冠心病患者的冠状动脉造影的研究中发现,ghrelin与病情严重程度呈负相关[29]。我国学者在患有糖尿病的患者中发现,ghrelin与冠状动脉病变的严重程度呈负相关[30]。基础研究显示,ghrelin水平与心脏室间隔厚度、左心室前壁厚度、左心室质量指数呈正相关[31]。动物实验发现,急性心肌梗死的大鼠注射ghrelin后可以改善疾病预后,认为这一效果可能与ghrelin减轻交感神经活性有关[32]。Mao等[33]的研究则认为,无论内源性还是外源性ghrelin均能够通过减轻交感神经活性而减少急性心肌梗死后恶性心律失常的发生,从而降低急性心肌梗死后死亡。细胞水平的研究表明,ghrelin可能作用于GHS-R有利于维持再灌注心肌细胞的电生理稳定性和抑制心肌细胞凋亡而起到保护急性心肌梗死后心肌细胞的作用[34]。Ghrelin对缺血心肌细胞具有正性肌力和防止其发生再灌注损伤的作用,并对维持正常心肌的稳定性及收缩力有益[35]。Baessler等[36]的人类单核苷酸多态性分析发现,特定的ghrelin及其受体的单倍体型可能影响人类对心肌梗死和冠心病的易患性和耐受性。在冠心病患者中,携带有Leu72Met和Met72Met基因型的个体比Leu72Leu基因型个体具有更小的体质量指数,而ghrelin基因多态性与冠心病无关[37]。
Ghrelin在动脉粥样硬化的发生和发展中起到一定的作用,其水平升高可能体现了机体为了逆转动脉粥样硬化而发生的某种代偿机制。然而,在老年人特别是合并有代谢综合征或动脉粥样硬化相关疾病时,各种危险因素相互作用,最终的结果是这种代偿能力可能不能有效发挥作用;加之机体复杂的调节机制尚未彻底阐明,因此ghrelin参与动脉粥样硬化发生、发展的具体机制还有待进一步研究证明。
[1] Kojima M,Hosoda H,Date Y,etal.Ghrelin is a growth-hormone-releasing acylated peptide from stomach[J].Nature,1999,402(6762):656-660.
[2] Hosoda H,Kojima M,Matsuo H,etal.Ghrelin and des-acyl ghrelin:two major forms of rat ghrelin peptide in gastrointestinal tissue[J].Biochem Biophys Res Commun,2000,279(3):909-913.
[3] Iglesias MJ,Pineiro R,Blanco M,etal.Growth hormone releasing peptide (ghrelin) is synthesized and secreted by cardiomyocytes[J].Cardiovasc Res,2004,62(3):481-488.
[4] Kleinz MJ,Maguire JJ,Skepper JN,etal.Functional and immunocytochemical evidence for a role of ghrelin and des-octanoyl ghrelin in the regulation of vascular tone in man[J].Cardiovasc Res,2006,69(1):227-235.
[5] Barazzoni R,Zanetti M,Ferreira C,etal.Relationships between desacylated and acylated ghrelin and insulin sensitivity in the metabolic syndrome[J].J Clin Endocrinol Metab,2007,92(10):3935-3940.
[6] Wadden D,Cahill F,Amini P,etal.Serum acylated ghrelin concentrations in response to short-term overfeeding in normal weight,overweight,and obese men[J].PLoS One,2012,7(9):e45748.
[7] Kojima M,Kangawa K.Ghrelin:structure and function[J].Physiol Rev,2005,85(2):495-522.
[8] Cowley MA,Grove KL.Ghrelin—satisfying a hunger for the mechanism[J].Endocrinology,2004,145(6):2604-2606.
[9] Benedix F,Westphal S,Patschke R,etal.Weight loss and changes in salivary ghrelin and adiponectin:comparison between sleeve gastrectomy and Roux-en-Y gastric bypass and gastric banding[J].Obes Surg,2011,21(5):616-624.
[10] Cederberg H,Rajala U,Koivisto VM,etal.Unacylated ghrelin is associated with changes in body composition and body fat distribution during long-term exercise intervention[J].Eur J Endocrinol,2011,165(2):243-248.
[11] Mager U,Kolehmainen M,Lindstrom J,etal.Association between ghrelin gene variations and blood pressure in subjects with impaired glucose tolerance[J].Am J Hypertens,2006,19(9):920-926.
[12] Iantorno M,Chen H,Kim JA,etal.Ghrelin has novel vascular actions that mimic PI3-kinase-dependent actions of insulin to stimulate production of NO from endothelial cells[J].Am J Physiol Endocrinol Metab,2007,292(3):E756-E764.
[13] Togliatto G,Trombetta A,Dentelli P,etal.Unacylated ghrelin rescues endothelial progenitor cell function in individuals with type 2 diabetes[J].Diabetes,2010,59(4):1016-1025.
[14] Li WG,Gavrila D,Liu X,etal.Ghrelin inhibits proinflammatory responses and nuclear factor-kappaB activation in human endothelial cells[J].Circulation,2004,109(18):2221-2226.
[15] Moazed B,Quest D,Gopalakrishnan V.Des-acyl ghrelin fragments evoke endothelium-dependent vasodilatation of rat mesenteric vascular bed via activation of potassium channels[J].Eur J Pharmacol,2009,604(1/3):79-86.
[16] Nanjo Y,Adachi H,Hirai Y,etal.Factors associated with plasma ghrelin level in Japanese general population[J].Clin Endocrinol(Oxf),2011,74(4):453-458.
[17] Ashraf A,Mick G,Meleth S,etal.Insulin treatment reduces pre-prandial plasma ghrelin concentrations in children with type 1 diabetes[J].Med Sci Monit,2007,13(12):CR533-CR537.
[18] Tong J,Prigeon RL,Davis HW,etal.Ghrelin suppresses glucose-stimulated insulin secretion and deteriorates glucose tolerance in healthy humans[J].Diabetes,2010,59(9):2145-21451.
[19] Zhang W,Chai B,Li JY,etal.Effect of des-acyl ghrelin on adiposity and glucose metabolism[J].Endocrinology,2008,149(9):4710-4716.
[20] Chacko SK,Haymond MW,Sun Y,etal.Effect of ghrelin on glucose regulation in mice[J].Am J Physiol Endocrinol Metab,2012,302(9):E1055-E1062.
[21] Granata R,Settanni F,Julien M,etal.Des-acyl ghrelin fragments and analogues promote survival of pancreatic beta-cells and human pancreatic islets and prevent diabetes in streptozotocin-treated rats[J].J Med Chem,2012,55(6):2585-2596.
[22] Gauna C,van der Lely AJ.Somatostatin,cortistatin,ghrelin and glucose metabolism[J].J Endocrinol Invest,2005,28(11 Suppl International):127-131.
[23] Barazzoni R,Bosutti A,Stebel M,etal.Ghrelin regulates mitochondrial-lipid metabolism gene expression and tissue fat distribution in liver and skeletal muscle[J].Am J Physiol Endocrinol Metab,2005,288(1):E228-E235.
[24] Miegueu P,St Pierre D,Broglio F,etal.Effect of desacyl ghrelin,obestatin and related peptides on triglyceride storage,metabolism and GHSR signaling in 3T3-L1 adipocytes[J].J Cell Biochem,2011,112(2):704-714.
[25] Nogueira JP,Maraninchi M,Beliard S,etal.Unacylated Ghrelin is associated with the isolated low HDL-cholesterol obese phenotype independently of insulin resistance and CRP level[J].Nutr Metab (Lond),2012,9(1):17.
[26] Yano Y,Toshinai K,Inokuchi T,etal.Plasma des-acyl ghrelin,but not plasma HMW adiponectin,is a useful cardiometabolic marker for predicting atherosclerosis in elderly hypertensive patients[J].Atherosclerosis,2009,204(2):590-594.
[27] Kadoglou NP,Sailer N,Moumtzouoglou A,etal.Visfatin(nampt) and ghrelin as novel markers of carotid atherosclerosis in patients with type 2 diabetes[J].Exp Clin Endocrinol Diabetes,2010,118(2):75-80.
[28] Tabak O,Gelisgen R,Cicekci H,etal.Circulating levels of adiponectin,orexin-A,ghrelin and the antioxidant paraoxonase-1 in metabolic syndrome[J].Minerva Med,2012,103(4):323-329.
[29] Kadoglou NP,Lampropoulos S,Kapelouzou A,etal.Serum levels of apelin and ghrelin in patients with acute coronary syndromes and established coronary artery disease—KOZANI STUDY[J].Transl Res,2010,155(5):238-246.
[30] Zhang M,Fang WY,Yuan F,etal.Plasma ghrelin levels are closely associated with severity and morphology of angiographically-detected coronary atherosclerosis in Chineses patients with diabetes mellitus[J].Acta Pharmacol Sin,2012,33(4):452-458.
[31] Ukkola O,Paakko T,Kesaniemi YA.Ghrelin and its promoter variant associated with cardiac hypertrophy[J].J Hum Hypertens,2012,26(7):452-457.
[32] Schwenke DO,Tokudome T,Kishimoto I,etal.One dose of ghrelin prevents the acute and sustained increase in cardiac sympathetic tone after myocardial infarction[J].Endocrinology,2012,153(5):2436-2443.
[33] Mao Y,Tokudome T,Otani K,etal.Ghrelin prevents incidence of malignant arrhythmia after acute myocardial infarction through vagal afferent nerves[J].Endocrinology,2012,153(7):3426-3434.
[34] Ma Y,Zhang L,Launikonis BS,etal.Growth hormone secretagogues preserve the electrophysiological properties of mouse cardiomyocytes isolated from in vitro ischemia/reperfusion heart[J].Endocrinology,2012,153(11):5480-5490.
[35] Ma Y,Zhang L,Edwards JN,etal.Growth hormone secretagogues protect mouse cardiomyocytes from in vitro ischemia/reperfusion injury through regulation of intracellular calcium[J].PLoS One,2012,7(4):e35265.
[36] Baessler A,Fischer M,Mayer B,etal.Epistatic interaction between haplotypes of the ghrelin ligand and receptor genes influence susceptibility to myocardial infarction and coronary artery disease[J].Hum Mol Genet,2007,16(8):887-899.
[37] Tang NP,Wang LS,Yang L,etal.Preproghrelin Leu72Met polymorphism in Chinese subjects with coronary artery disease and controls[J].Clin Chim Acta,2008,387(1/2):42-47.