Ｕｎｄｅｒｓｔａｎｄｉｎｇ Ｅｎｇｌｉｓｈ ａｎｄ Ｃｈｉｎｅｓｅ Ｉｄｉｏｍｓ ｆｒｏｍ ａ Ｃｕｌｔｕｒａｌ Ｐｅｒｓｐｅｃｔｉｖｅ

代礼胜

Abstract: Idioms are an important reflection of the culture of a language. English and Chinese are both rich in idioms. However, owing to different cultural factors, the cultural messages embodied in their respective idioms naturally display substantial differences as well as similarities. If we neglect such factors, we will make mistakes in idiom-interpretation. This paper mainly talks about the cultural differences embodied in English and Chinese idioms to remind English majors of the strong cultural characteristics of idioms for better understanding and smooth communication.

Keywords: idiom；culture；comparison；cultural factor

中图分类号： G643.2文献标识码: A文章编号：1672-1578（2009)5-0001-03

1 Introduction

It is now widely accepted that to learn a foreign language, the learners must work with the culture or cultures associated with that language and its communities. The concept of culture has a much broader meaning. According to Patrick R. Moran, culture is the evolving way of life of a group of persons, consisting of a shared set of practices associated with a shared set of products, based upon a shared set of perspectives on the world, and set within specific social contexts. On one hand, culture means the customs, institutions, objects, techniques, organizations, family patterns and political systems that characterize the life of a human community, which are explicit. On the other hand, culture also refers to their way of thinking, their perspectives, which are implicit. It is like icebergs: some features can be seen, which includes housing, law, food, belief and customs, while the others are deeply hidden, which includes the way we encode information.

One of the important characteristics of culture is that culture is learned. Without the advantages of knowledge from those who lived before us, we would not have culture. In practice, the group's knowledge stored up (in memories, books and objects) for future use is at the core of the concept of culture. We learn our culture from a great variety of sources, among which are folk-tales, legends, myths and proverbs, which are embodied in idioms.

2 The definition of Idioms

According to Oxford Advanced Learners Dictionary of Current English , an “idiom" refers to “ a phrase or sentence whose meaning is not clear from the meaning of its individual words and which must be learnt as a whole unit”. Websters New World Dictionary of the American Language (College Edition 2nd,1972) defines “idiom” as an accepted phrase, construction, or expression contrary to the patterns of the language or having a meaning different from the language or having a meaning different from the literal. English idioms mainly include set phrases or expressions, colloquialism, proverbs and slangs.

The Chinese word “成语” (chengyu) is often translated into "idiom". In Cihai(词海1989), chengyu is defined as “set phrases which have been customarily used, mostly consisting of four characters"; while shuyu refers to" set phrases or sentences, whose structures are often established and can't be easily changed. Chinese idioms mainly include set phrases, proverbs, slangs, two-part allegorical sayings (xiehouyu,歇后语) and common sayings（suyu,俗语）.

3 Cultural Differences Reflected by Chinese and English Idioms

Every nation has its own language, among which idiom is the essence and treasure. Most idioms in different languages express different language customs and different cultural features or characteristics. Idioms have strong national and local color. Chinese and English idioms are all full of cultural features. A wealth of idioms in Chinese and English languages may be to a great extent accounted for by the historical development of the languages. Their components are mostly native elements on account of their respective histories, cultural heritages, geographical conditions, religious beliefs, life experiences, and states of mind. We are going to look at these aspects respectively.

3.1Different historical backgrounds

The different historical backgrounds of the English and Chinese people with their different historical events have provided rich and varied source materials for their idioms, and innevitably give a national color to the idioms in the two languages. There are a lot of idioms in the Chinese language which cannot find equivalents in the English language due to such differences.

The Great Britain had been conquered by other nations several times, which also enriched their culture while bringing them wars. The Roman conquest spread Latin language on the British Isles and brought a lot of Roman culture, e.g. "to bear the palm" means "to win"; the Teutonic Conquest brought the ancestor of English, Anglo-Saxon; the Norman Conquest carried French words and culture, e.g. "to return to one's muttons" implies "to get down to one's business"; the foundation and rapid development of the United States also enriched the Western culture to a large extent, such as "to eat apple pies". The idiom "Dunkirk evacuation"(敦刻尔克撤退) comes from the Second World War and originally meant the retreat of the English-French troops forced by the German. Now the expression means to retreat in disorder. "When Greek meet Greek, then comes the tug of war" means "a fierce battle". A story is told that, in 1936, Emilio Mola headed four columns to attack the capital——Madrid. Before attacking, he delivered a speech that the four columns had surrounded Madrid, while the fifth column was in the city. That is how the idiom "the fifth column" (第五纵队) came into being. Similar examples are "Columbus's egg"(哥伦布竖鸡蛋) and "to eat crow" (吃下乌鸦).

The following idioms are from historical events in Ancient China:“草木皆兵” (be in a state of extreme nervousness); “卧薪尝胆”(to sleep on brushwood and taste gall——to undergo self-imposed hardships so as to strengthen one's resolve to wipe out a national humiliation);“身在曹营心在汉” (Though one is physically here, one's mind is elsewhere——to render only half-hearted service)，“风声鹤唳” (be panic-stricken at the slightest breath of danger)，“徐庶进曹营, 一言不发” (to hold one's tongue).

3.2 Different religious beliefs

Since the ancient times, the Western world has been strongly influenced by Christianity. Most of the westerners are Christians, who believe that the world was created by God, and that everything in the world is arranged and disposed of according to Gods will. Jesus is believed to be the representative of the God in the human world. He emphasizes that people should get on well with each another and be responsible for the country and other people. But people should absolutely obey the God. God is the only one that people should worship. We can easily see this thought from the following idioms:

"God provides for him that trusts."

"That never ends ill which begins in God's name."

"Truth is the daughter of God."

Though God is above all, Christianity believes that in the human world, every man is equal, so "Every man is a King in his own house." "A cat may look at a King” "God helps those who help themselves", "Sow the wind and reap the whirlwind"(恶有恶报)，"old Adam"(本性的罪恶) "a doubting Thomas" (不肯轻易相信别人的人)，"all things to all men" (八面玲珑).

China is a multi-religious country. Comparatively speaking, Buddhism has a greater influence on Chinese culture. During the Han Dynasty (206BC-220AD) and Tang Dynasty (618-907AD), Buddhism was introduced to China. As the only foreign system of thought which made a profound impact on Chinese civilization before modern times, it preaches that if people discard illusions and only do good, they will become Buddhas after death. So now people still often say,“放下屠刀，立地成佛”(Putting down the butcher's knife, one will at once become a Buddha). If we meet some kind-hearted people, we will say they have a“菩萨心肠”(a great kind heart of a Buddha). We have more examples ,such as“现身说法”(to make a personal example as an effective means of convincing others),“半路出家”(switch to a new trade without solid foundation)，“救人一命胜造七级佛途”(to save a human life is better than building a seven-stairs pagoda)，“一尘不染”(remained spotless)，“做一天和尚，撞一天钟”(take a passive attitude toward one's work).

Besides, Taoism is an indigenous religion in China, which believes that people can go to the heaven and be immortal through some special practice, but its influence to people is the least substantial in China compared with the other two schools. A few Chinese idioms are from Taoist thought, such as “修身养性”(engage in self-cultivation) and “一人得道，鸡犬升天”(If a man becomes immortal, even his hen and dog become immortal too). In our mind, after thousands of years of integration and development, the two schools of thought have already become unified. They complement each another and play their social roles in the guiding our ways of thinking .

3.3Different geographical features

Natural environment also plays a very important role in the formation of a nation's culture. The Great Britain is an island with a long coastline and maritime transportation occupies a very important position, so its seafaring is quite advanced. The English people often compare life to navigation. When they don't know what to do, they say they are "all at sea", and when they hesitate, it's just like a sailboat to "hang in the wind". Apart from seafaring, their fishery is also vital to people's life. So when they feel uneasy, they are "like a fish out of water", and if they have other things to do, they "have other fish to fry". In addition, the Great Britain is in the west of the European continent and it has a typical temperate oceanic climate, so it has a lot of rain, wind and fog. For the British people, rain is not a minor troublesome thing, but a guest of season. When something is normal, it is "as right as rain", but you should save some money "for a rainy day", in case you meet some difficult days. Fog also brought them "fogbound ship" and "fogbound passengers". When people don't know clearly about something, they are "in a fog".

The birthplace of ancient Chinese culture was the Yellow River Basin, which led to China's agricultural economy. in Chinese idioms, we can find “不到黄河心不死” (refuse to give up until all hope is gone)，“不到长城非好汉”(He who does not reach the Great Wall is not a true man), for “黄河” and “长城” are regarded as the symbols of the Chinese people. An overwhelming majority of the people lives in the rural area, so that a large number of idioms grow from agricultural activities. For example，“瓜熟蒂落”(Things will be easily settled when conditions are ripe)，“种瓜得瓜，种豆得豆”( As a man sows, so shall he reap )，“四体不勤，五谷不分”(can neither do physical work nor distinguish rice from wheat). Furthermore, the traditional Chinese calendar is the lunar calendar, in which a year is divided into twenty-four solar terms, which are frequently used in proverbs;“清明时节雨纷纷”(unbroken spell of wet weather around the Qing Ming Festival)，“白露身不露” (Don't be bare-backed after White Dew).The petty farmers' agricultural production and life brought them rich experience in grain production and weather forecast, and they even created the " 24 solar terms" within the lunar calendar. So the Chinese people often say“春分有雨家家忙”(On the Vernal Equinox, every family is busy), “一场秋雨一场凉”(Every time of autumn rain will bring more coldness), “春秋多佳日” (There are many fine days in spring and autumn), etc.

3.4Different cultural perspectives

In the past, the Western world was under the feudal rule, just like the ancient China. But, later it went into the capitalist society, while China entered the socialist society. Therefore, their different ideologies and social systems have led to different cultures and views. The Westerners believe that children have their own independent personalities and freedom, so it's not a must for them to obey their parents, to bear the next generation or to support their aged parents. Their thoughts in love and sex are much more open than ours. A lot of them regard love above all other things, so for them, "All is fair in love and war." "Love is lawless." And they advocate sex emancipation without restrictions. Besides, they respect money and advocate pragmatism, and as a result, they believe "Money talks." "No money, no honey." "A bird in the hand is worth two in the bush". But owing to their long history of legal system, they pay more attention to the administration according to law. They say "we live by laws, not by examples."

China has long been under the feudal rule. Feudal rulers promoted Confucianism as a tool of ruling, while the common people worshiped Confucius as a saint. Confucianism focuses on humans, including human positions, personal relationship, morality and happiness, etc, in order to achieve the harmony and unity of all kinds of contradictions in the world. So it requires that people should be diligent, frugal, peaceful and modest, instead of having too many lusts. So in China, we often say“严以律己，宽以待人”(Be broad-minded towards others while setting strict demands on ourselves) and“粗茶淡饭就是福”(To have plain tea and simple food is a fortune). In addition, it emphasizes that the human society is a hierarchy and people should obey certain social rules and play their own parts only, so the common people should“循规蹈矩”(follow the conventional rules and regulations) and“克己复礼” (comply with the rites by setting restraints on oneself), and those rulers required the common people to be obedient to the government officials. Feudal officials usually enjoyed many privileges and the common people were strongly oppressed. Therefore, many idioms were created to show the social inequalities and feudal oppression, such as“官官相护”(Bureaucrats shield one another),“苛政猛于虎”(army is more fierce than a tiger),“只许州官放火，不许百姓点灯”(While the magistrates were allowed free to burn down the house, the common people were forbidden even to light lamps), and“衙门自古朝南开，有理无钱莫进来”(Court doors may open, but not to the poor).

3.5Different cultural experiences

In Europe, wheat, barley and oat are the major crops. As a result, the British people are used to having bread, jam, cheese and butter as their foods, so they "earn their bread" to live their life and "bread and butter" is their basic necessity for life. Besides, they have milk, pudding, pie and beer as popular foods, so they say "there's no use crying over spilt milk" and "the proof of the pudding will be in the eating". When somebody is drunk, he is "on the beer", and when he makes an unrealistic promise, it is only a "pie in the sky"."earn one's bread"——make a living; "Butter to butter is no relish"——follow a fixed pattern; "hard cheese"——bad luck.

Before 1949, the Chinese people's living conditions were generally poor and backward. Only those privileged few could have enough foods and clothes, and the underprivileged always lacked in their basic things of subsistence. Therefore, the common people often say “民以食为天” (Food is the first necessity of the people) and “衣食足，然后知荣辱” (Well fed, well bred). In China, most of the areas especially the south grow rice, so many idioms have to do with rice: “巧妇难为无米之炊”(Even the cleverest housewife can't cook a meal without rice)，不当家不知柴米贵(He who takes charge knows the responsibility)，“看菜吃饭，量体裁衣”(to adapt oneself to circumstances).But the rich always live a life with“锦衣玉食”(elegant dress and delicacies like a feast) and they also “衣来伸手，饭来张口” (have only to hold out one's hands to be dressed and open one's mouth to be fed).

4 Conclusion

The differences between different nations lie not only in the languages they speak, but more importantly, in the cultural perspectives that are implicit. It is culture that offers source and meaning to linguistic expressions, especially idioms. As cultural backgrounds differ from one another and idioms best manifest the culture features of a language, the significance of idiom comparison can be seen in the following:

First, it helps the language learners to pay close attention to the cultural discrepancy between the English and Chinese languages. Idioms are derived from numerous sources with various culture backgrounds. The difficulty lies in those that can hardly be understood from the meanings of the individual words, and some idioms cannot be comprehended correctlywithout clarifying their cultural features and cultural identities

Second, it helps bridge the cultural gap and enhance the effectiveness of inter-cultural communication. Cultural gaps prove to be chief obstacles for intercultural communication. Idioms are the cream of a language and play an active role in indicating the cultural traits. Idiom gap is a universal phenomenon and often impede effective communication between people from different cultures. In order to bridge it, a careful study of culture implied in idioms is of great help. Only by doing so can we make the students increase their cultural awareness and be in a confident position in the course of intercultural communication.

Finally, it helps promote language proficiency and inter-cultural communicative competence, which, for language majors, are of much greater sinificance.

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