Classical Opera and Folk Culture Reflections

The audio-visual characteristics of the art of opera determine the imagery of the opera. In a sense， the opera script constitutes an alternative form of “folklore，”" “opera folklore.” The “folk mirror” in classical art is mainly reflected in folk beliefs， witchcraft and rituals， marriage customs， festival customs， folk language， etc.， with folk beliefs and customs being the most typical. Opera is a living genre painting， the art history of the people， and the spiritual epic of the people.

I. Classical Opera

1. Definition

The term “classical opera” in this book primarily refers to opera scripts produced in ancient times， encompassing works created by playwrights from the Song and Yuan dynasties onward. It includes Song-Yuan Southern Opera， Yuan zaju scripts， Ming zaju scripts， Ming chuanqi scripts， Qing Dynasty zaju， major kunqu opera scripts， and local opera scripts. The timeline extends up to the eve of the Republic of China， excluding modern creations such as “modern operas” that emulate classical forms.

2. Main Characteristics

First， prolonged development and diverse forms.

The emergence of classical opera can be traced back over two millennia， as early as the Han Dynasty. The historical record of existing scripts spans at least a thousand years， during which opera underwent extensive evolution， resulting in diverse forms across different historical periods. This diversity is reflected in elements such as script structure， scale， music， vocal styles， and performance formats. For instance， Yuan zaju typically consists of only four acts， employing a “solo singing” approach， markedly different from the elaborate operas consisting of several dozen acts of later periods. The prolonged development process is the primary reason for the varied characteristics of opera across eras.

Second， stability and continuity in performance forms.

The performance of classical opera exhibits a remarkable degree of stability and continuity over time. Opera is characterized by inherent conventions， such as role specialization among actors， the use of music and dance to tell stories， and the application of costumes， props， and facial makeup. These elements have undergone minimal changes over a millennium. This stability owes much to the oral and physical transmission methods of opera， where performers themselves act as carriers of tradition. Such body-centered transmission has ensured the enduring nature of opera’s performance forms. Iconic Peking opera repertoires， including Fisherman’s Revenge， The Crossroads Inn， and Lin Chong Flees by Night， remain faithfully performed to this day， relying on successive generations of artists for preservation.

Third， rich repository of folk culture.

Aristotle posited that art forms like drama stem from the imitation of life， and this imitation must strive for realism to evoke pleasure. In classical opera， this pursuit of authenticity brings a wealth of “life details” into the scripts. These vivid reflections of ancient lifestyles create a unique “opera-based ethnography” from a folkloristic perspective， providing valuable insights into ancient folk culture.

II. Ethnographic Elements in Classical Opera

Ethnography refers to the documentation， organization， and study of folk materials. It can be broadly divided into two categories: First， fieldwork ethnography， in which folk materials are gathered through on-site investigations to conduct ethnographic research. Second， textual ethnography， in which folk materials are obtained through the study of historical texts and documents for ethnographic purposes. Both approaches have their strengths and limitations. Traditional textual ethnography often focuses on historical records， local gazetteers， and literary notes， with less attention paid to the folk elements embedded in opera. Classical opera reflects folk culture through its deliberate selection and representation of certain themes， most prominently in the following areas:

1. Folk Beliefs and Religious Customs

Religious customs are one of the most prominent folk elements in classical opera. A review of extant ancient scripts reveals that a variety of deities are indispensable characters in opera. These include Buddhist deities such as Buddha， Guanyin (the Goddess of Mercy)， and Kalan Guardians， as well as Daoist deities including the Eight Immortals， Queen Mother of the West， Emperor of the Eastern Peak， and Tai Bai. There are higher-ranking gods like the Jade Emperor， who issue commands and govern the fate of characters， while also lower-ranking gods， such as Earth Gods and Door Gods， who carry out orders， mediate events， and provide assistance to ensure the story unfolds as intended. Without divine interventions， many opera stories would struggle to progress， highlighting the deep connection between opera and religious folk customs. This close relationship likely stems from the traditional performance contexts of opera. In ancient times， operas were often performed in temples and ancestral halls， serving dual purposes of entertaining both gods and humans， making the inclusion of deities essential. Additionally， various magical rituals， rooted in the limited scientific understanding and prevalence of superstition in ancient times， further underscore the opera’s ties to religious customs.

2. Marriage and Romantic Customs

Love stories between talented scholars and beautiful ladies are a recurring theme in opera， with marriage customs frequently serving as central narrative elements. Classic works such as Romance of the Western Chamber and The Peony Pavilion exemplify this. Opera’s portrayal of marriage customs often reflects both realistic and idealized elements. Realistic depictions include the use of matchmakers for marriage proposals， verifying compatibility through birth date analysis， and traditional wedding day rituals like the groom fetching the bride， drinking ceremonial wine (hejin jiu)， and singing festive songs in the bridal chamber. Meanwhile， there are also idealized and transcendent elements. Young lovers often defy the conventional “parents’ order and matchmaker’s words” (a core principle of traditional arranged marriages)， demonstrating a rebellious streak that highlights opera’s artistic creativity and its ability to challenge societal conventions.

3. Festival Customs

Classical opera vividly portrays various traditional festival customs， such as neighbors exchanging New Year greetings during the Spring Festival， Lantern Festival celebrations with community performances， tomb-sweeping during Qingming， archery and ball games during the Dragon Boat Festival， rituals honoring the Cowherd and Weaver Girl during the Qixi Festival， and moon-viewing parties during the Mid-Autumn Festival. Opera often incorporates festival customs for two reasons. By showcasing the lively and festive spirit of celebrations， operas infuse their stories with vibrant energy and relatable cultural elements. Besides， festivals were significant occasions for opera performances. Aligning storylines with real-life seasonal festivals heightened the entertainment value and relevance of the productions.

4. Culinary Customs

Food， a central aspect of life， naturally finds expression in classical opera. Themes of drinking alcohol and tea-drinking are widely featured， highlighting the prominent roles of tea and alcohol in ancient daily life. Regional and temporal dietary preferences are also reflected in operas. Characters in Yuan Dynasty zaju operas are often depicted enjoying lamb and milk tea， echoing the dietary preferences of northern nomadic peoples. Culinary depictions help shape artistic personas. For example， greedy villains are shown overeating， while monks defying monastic rules are caught indulging in forbidden foods. Classical operas frequently feature mythical delicacies， such as Laozi’s elixirs and the Queen Mother of the West’s peaches of immortality， demonstrating the rich imagination of ancient creators.

5. Oral Traditions

Oral traditions encompass myths， legends， folktales， and ballads. Opera is deeply intertwined with these traditions， often drawing material from them. For instance， nearly all of the “Four Great Folktales” have been adapted for the opera stage. The reason why operas like to draw materials from folk tales is that these tales have been passed down in folklore for a long time and contain the aesthetic ideals and moral value judgments of the common people. Their familiarity made these stories easily relatable and accepted by audiences， ensuring their enduring popularity in opera.

6. Linguistic Folk Traditions

Linguistic folk traditions include regional dialects， slang， riddles， proverbs， idioms， and witty or humorous expressions rooted in everyday life. The extensive use of folk language in operas is related to the characteristics of opera itself. Opera artists come from the folk and are most familiar with the language of the people. Since the audience for classical opera largely consisted of commoners， using familiar， accessible language created a strong emotional connection and resonance.

III Mirror Image of Folk Custom

The term “mirror image” here metaphorically refers to classical opera as a mirror reflecting the lives of ancient people. The “folk customs” portrayed in opera are essentially the images seen through this mirror. These reflections have the following characteristics.

1. Rooted in the Mimicry of Ancient Life

Folk custom reflections in opera are grounded in the authentic lives of ancient people， a characteristic intrinsic to drama. As an art form， drama draws its material from life and strives for realism in its artistic presentation. This realistic foundation roots folk custom reflections firmly in real-life soil. However， since these reflections occur in the artistic realm， they transcend mere replication of life， blending creativity and freedom into their representation. While specific folk customs are constrained by time and space， their artistic portrayals enjoy a degree of imaginative liberation.

2. Marked by Virtuality

A mirror image is not a tangible entity but rather a virtual reflection of reality. Similarly， the virtuality of folk custom reflections stems from the inherent virtuality of drama. Drama is an art of illusion， where every element bears a mark of unreality. Ancient people often remarked， “Those who perform plays are mad; those who watch plays are fools，” pointing to this phenomenon. The actors portray fictitious characters and plots with heartfelt sincerity， earning the label of “mad，” while the audience， fully aware of the fiction， becomes emotionally invested in the characters’ fates， earning the label of “fools.” In this context， all folk custom scenes in drama are crafted for narrative purposes， making them virtualized representations of folk life.

3. Inherently Distorted

The degree of distortion in folk custom reflections correlates with the virtuality of dramatic performance. Firstly， as part of a theatrical performance， folk custom reflections can never achieve full authenticity， regardless of how closely they mimic reality. Secondly， the extent to which performers understand and are familiar with the customs they depict significantly influences the accuracy of their portrayals. Finally， drama inherently allows for considerable freedom in representing life， contributing further to the distortion of folk custom reflections. These distortions can be categorized into two types: passive distortion and active distortion. Examining the degrees of distortion in specific opera works remains a focal point of scholarly research.

Peng Hengli

Peng Hengli is the director of the Intangible Cultural Heritage Research Center at Henan University. Chairman of Henan Folk Literature and Art Association， he is mainly engaged in the research of opera folklore， ancient stage， and opera inscriptions.