医患互动中元非人化对攻击倾向的影响:患者的视角

2022-06-01 18:12:06王沛陈宇杰范春霞
心理技术与应用 2022年4期

王沛 陈宇杰 范春霞 

摘要元非人化是指内群体持有的外群体对本群体非人化的信念。医患互动中,患者因医方对其非人化而产生元非人化信念(包括微妙元非人化信念和公然元非人化信念),此举容易引发针对医方的攻击倾向。在遭受微妙非人化后,自尊水平越高的患者攻击倾向会有所增强;与此同时,患者的公然元非人化信念在影响社会身份威胁、互换意愿以及对医方的非人化信念后,容易导致对医方的攻击倾向。通过树立医务人员人性形象、提高患者人性化体验、加强医务人员和患者的积极人性化接触,同时对患者进行积极的心理调适,可以抑制患者的元非人化信念对攻击倾向的激发,减少潜在的医患失谐。

关键词医患互动;元非人化;攻击倾向;公然元非人化;微妙元非人化

分类号B849

DOI: 10.16842/j.cnki.issn2095-5588.2022.04.001

1引言

医患关系对于医疗过程有著重要影响,和谐的医患关系可以促进医疗活动顺利有效地进行。近些年来,我国的医患关系每况愈下(Sun et al., 2017),带来了许多不良影响(孙连荣, 王沛, 2019), 不但使得医患纠纷事件频发(吴昊坦, 2017),甚至造成医患间极端的冲突激增(贾晓莉等, 2014)。其中,患者的攻击倾向乃至攻击行为对医患关系的影响尤为严重。患者施之于医务人员的身体和言语攻击(Franz et al., 2010),不但不利于护理和治疗,而且还使医患关系严重失谐(Di Martino, 2003)。因此,探究患者对医方攻击倾向的影响因素,对于构建和谐医患关系具有重要意义。

医疗过程中,由于遭受医方非人化所产生的元非人化信念是影响患者攻击倾向的关键因素。元非人化(meta-dehumanization)是指内群体持有外群体将该群体非人化的信念(Kteily et al., 2016; Hodson et al., 2014),包括公然元非人化以及微妙元非人化两大类型,均严重影响内群体对外群体的攻击性态度和暴力行为倾向(Bruneau, 2016; Kteily et al., 2016; Kteily & Bruneau, 2017b; Zhang et al., 2017)。在医患互动过程中,患者常常遭受医方的非人化言行(Haque & Waytz, 2012),加之患者在医患关系中长期处于劣势地位(吴昊坦, 2017),使得他们极易产生元非人化信念(Kteily & Bruneau, 2017b),并最终诱发对医方的攻击倾向。

2患者的元非人化信念

在医疗实践中,患者通常会因受到刻板印象、偏见与歧视等消极体验而出现身份认同困难(徐岩, 2017),常常处于身体、自我和身份三者的纠结关系之中(涂炯,钟就娣, 2017)。患者生病后渴望脱离患者身份,努力从疾病中恢复,回到正常人的生活之中。然而,医生可能会以去人性化的方式对待患者(曹锦亚, 魏镜, 2015;Balfe, 2016;De Zulveta, 2013;Lee, 2015;Lebowitz & Ahn, 2016)。

元非人化是在元知觉(meta-perception)、元刻板印象(meta-stereotype)和非人化理论的基础上提出的。元知觉是指个体关于他人对其或其所属群体所持的信念(Elsaadawy, 2018; Ohtsubo et al., 2009),通常是消极甚至是错误的(Bellmore & Cillessen, 2003; Frey & Tropp, 2006)。作为特殊的元知觉,元刻板印象是指个体关于外群体成员对其所属群体所持的刻板印象的信念(Finkelstein et al., 2015)、 尤其是消极的刻板印象(Owuamalam et al., 2013)。非人化是指对他人人性特征感知的减少(杨文琪等, 2015)。如果内群体对外群体持有非人化信念(Bruneau et al., 2018),将会导致对外群体的攻击(Kteily et al., 2015)。与此同时,遭到外群体的非人化的内群体会形成非人化的元知觉(Bastian & Haslam, 2010; Bastian & Haslam, 2011)。Kteily等人(2016)将这种非人化的元知觉定义为元非人化,并且将之进一步界分为两大类型:一是公然元非人化,指内群体成员持有外群体成员将内群体成员故意、公开、明目张胆的非人化的信念(Kteily et al., 2016);二是微妙元非人化,指内群体成员持有外群体成员将内群体成员轻微的、不经意的非人化的信念(Zhang et al., 2017)。

元非人化信念是在遭受非人化后产生的。那么,在医患互动中,是否存在元非人化信念呢?有研究表明,大量患者报告在牙科诊所就诊期间体验到了非人化对待(Raja et al., 2015);精神病患者群体更易受到非人化、污名化,普遍会体验到元非人化(Fontesse et al., 2019)。因此,在医患互动中,患者群体中会存在元非人化信念(Demoulin et al., 2021)。这是因为:第一,医患情景中,医方常常将患者非人化,其非人化以公然或者微妙的形式体现(Adams et al., 2017; Raja et al., 2015)。其中,公然非人化表现为医方像管理囚犯一样管理患者,把患者的名字记成数字、限制他们的活动(Balfe, 2016),以疾病或床号称呼患者(曹锦亚, 魏镜, 2015),把患者当作已破损、急需修复的零部件等。微妙非人化表现为医方对患者人性关怀的缺失(Fontesse et al., 2019)。例如,对患者的需求视而不见,降低对他们的共情(De Zulveta, 2013),甚至弱化对患者人性特征的感知,将他们视作物体(Lee, 2015),把患者的症状比作机械故障而非人类的主观心理体验(Lebowitz & Ahn, 2016)。第二,患者群体中普遍存在对医方的消极元知觉(Légaré et al., 2012; Turcotte et al.,2019)。综上所述,由于常常遭受医方的非人化以及本身持有对医方的消极元知觉,患者极易形成对医方的元非人化信念。如果患者感知到医方对他们公然非人化,他们将形成公然元非人化信念;如果患者感知到医方对他们微妙非人化,他们将形成微妙元非人化信念。F8241096-6436-4A17-B903-5EE4304BA5AB

3患者的元非人化信念引发攻击倾向

当遭受医方非人化从而形成公然或微妙元非人化信念后,患者是否为了抵御痛苦而采取过激行动呢?来自一般群体的研究证据表明:内群体成员的元非人化信念将导致对外群体成员的攻击倾向(Andrighetto et al., 2016)。其中,公然元非人化信念会激发对外群体极端的攻击倾向(Kteily, Bruneau, 2017a)。美国人所持有的对阿拉伯人的公然元非人化信念,导致他们对阿拉伯人的攻击性态度和暴力行为,包括敌视、暴力轰炸以及攻击等(Kteily et al., 2016)。优势群体的公然元非人化信念导致攻击倾向,劣势群体的公然元非人化信念同样导致攻击倾向(Hodson et al., 2014; Kteily & Bruneau, 2017a)。例如,低地位、劣势的拉美人和穆斯林所持有的对特朗普以及美国共和党的公然元非人化信念致使对特朗普以及美国共和党的情感敵意甚至暴力倾向(Kteily & Bruneau, 2017b)。另外,个体遭受微妙非人化而产生微妙元非人化信念(Bastian & Haslam, 2011)也会导致对外群体的攻击倾向(Zhang et al., 2017; Andrighetto et al., 2016)。在企业管理中,持有微妙非人化信念的员工表现出对组织攻击性的态度(Caesens et al., 2017)。那么,患者群体的微妙或者公然元非人化信念是否可能导致对医方的攻击倾向呢?

正如上文所说,患者群体的微妙或者公然元非人化信念也极有可能发展为对医方的攻击倾向。这是基于:第一,患者在时间、经济、地位上处于劣势或者被动状态(吴昊坦, 2017);第二,元感知(元知觉、元刻板印象、元非人化)危害群际关系(OBrien et al., 2018; Vorauer et al., 1998; Hodson et al., 2014)。处于低地位的劣势群体关于别人对自己的看法很敏感(Gomez, 2002),而且劣势群体比优势群体所持的元非人化信念反应更为极端,所以患者形成的元非人化信念往往会导致消极反应,并造成特别有害的影响(Van et al., 2008; Kteily et al., 2016)。由于非人化的遭遇极为痛苦,还会导致个体认知灵活程度降低、羞耻感和痛苦情绪升高(Zhang et al., 2017),甚至造成对非人化的施害者——医方的报复性非人化,因此持有元非人化信念的患者将最终产生对医方攻击的态度和报复的行为倾向,进而造成医患关系破裂和医患失谐不断升级。

4患者元非人化信念影响攻击倾向的作用机制

如前所述,公然元非人化信念使得个体的社会身份受到威胁,继而出现“互换”敌意认知意愿,通过把外群体成员非人化,产生对外群体成员的攻击倾向(Kteily et al., 2016);遭受微妙非人化在影响攻击倾向时,内群体成员的自尊水平越高,攻击倾向越强(Zhang et al., 2017)。

4.1社会身份威胁与“互换”意愿对患者公然元非人化效应的影响

在公然元非人化影响攻击倾向时,非人化起到了中介作用(Bruneau et al., 2020)。当公然元非人化影响非人化时,社会身份威胁、“互换”意愿起中介作用。Deska(2018)就曾发现,持有对罗姆人公然元非人化信念的匈牙利人,通过把罗姆人非人化,造成对罗姆人的敌视。如此以来,非人化使得对外群体的伤害变得合情合理(Rai et al., 2017;Bruneau et al., 2018; Lindén et al., 2016))。当然,公然元非人化信念的降低也会降低非人化和攻击倾向(Orosz et al., 2018)。公然元非人化信念还引起了社会身份威胁(Kteily et al., 2016)。此时,个体的防御机制立刻激活,不但对外群体的信任降低、合作减少(Kahn et al.,2017),甚至可能报复、贬损外群体(Jetten et al., 2013)。个体所持的公然元非人化信念产生了社会身份受到威胁的感觉,又导致“互换”意愿(Kteily et al., 2016)。群体之间存在“互换”规范,具有相互性。当个体获得对方的积极反应,意味着“回报”也是积极的;当所获得的反应是消极的,“回报”也会变得消极(Doosje & Haslam, 2005)。一旦认为外群体持有对自己负面的刻板印象,个体就会对外群体进行负面评价(Vorauer & Kumhyr, 2001; Owuamalam et al., 2013)。遭到外群体的贬低还会使得人们对外群体进行强烈的报复(Park & Antonioni, 2007; Eisenberger et al., 2004)。综上所述,人们的公然元非人化信念越深,社会身份威胁的感觉越强,“互换”敌意的意愿程度越高,对外群体的非人化程度越大,对该群体的攻击性越强。

在医疗过程中,患者是医患关系的主体,理应得到人格和身份上的尊重,但却常常遭受医方的公然非人化对待。持有公然元非人化信念的患者觉得自己被比作无差别的物体或不值得尊重的生物,因而其身份受到了极大的威胁。为了抵御这种威胁带来的不适感,患者采取防御措施,从而形成了“互换”意愿。由于医方将患者非人化,患者便会通过使用与医方相同的策略(Kettunen et al., 2002),产生“互换”非人化的意愿,把医方比作“空壳子”(Schroeder & Fishbach, 2015)等,淡化医方的人性,甚至产生对医方的攻击倾向。因此,患者所持的对医方公然元非人化的信念通过影响患者的社会身份威胁、“互换”的意愿并把医方非人化,造成对医方的攻击倾向。

4.2自尊对患者微妙元非人化效应的影响

微妙元非人化影响攻击倾向时,个体的自尊水平能够起调节作用。具体表现为:自尊高的个体比自尊低的个体攻击倾向更强(Zhang et al., 2017)。由于高自尊个体把所持的微妙元非人化信念视为他人对自己形象的威胁,从而引起个体的敏感和不适,因此产生对非人化施害者强烈的攻击倾向(Bushman et al., 2009)。另外,由于微妙元非人化信念容易使人们产生羞耻感和忽视感(Bastian & Haslam, 2011),高自尊个体更难以容忍这种感受,因此产生对施害者高度的攻击倾向。而低自尊特质的人面对这种感觉更有可能忍气吞声,不太会出现攻击倾向(Zhang et al., 2017)。F8241096-6436-4A17-B903-5EE4304BA5AB

患者所持的对医方的微妙元非人化信念在影响攻击倾向时,自尊水平的差异也可能起调节作用。由于患者群体具有独特性,其自身的自尊水平也存在差异,高自尊水平患者的微妙元非人化信念威胁了其自身的自尊(Bushman et al., 2009),为了降低自尊受到的威胁感或降低被羞辱、被忽视的感觉,因而产生了对医方的攻击倾向。

5患者元非人化影响攻击倾向的消解

5.1树立医务人员的人性化形象

提高患者对医务人员人性化行为的认知是降低患者公然元去人性化的重要手段,此举能够有效避免医患间的暴力冲突(Androff, 2010)。第一,大众媒体应当加强对医务人员人性化的宣传,给广大患者树立医务工作者人性化的形象,指导患者换位思考,主动体验医患互动中的人性化。第二,可利用服装强调医务人员的个性,在工作制服上加入个性化特征。医务人员可以设计不同的颜色、图案以区分不同科室,这些差异化的服装可使他们成为独特、鲜活的个体(Fontesse et al., 2019),降低患者对其的去人性化认知(Haque & Waytz, 2012)。总之,在医疗情景中有必要重视树立医务人员的人性化形象。

5.2提高患者的人性化体验

增强患者自身的人性化体验,可以有效降低患者的微妙元去人性化(Kteily et al., 2016)。第一,医院尽可能设置人性化的就医环境。比如,院方允许患者最大程度地对生活空间进行个性化布置(Fontesse et al., 2019)。第二,医院让患者感受到自身的个性化信息受到重视,更多地把患者当作独立的鲜明个体,避免以社保号码、病历号码或病床号确定患者的身份(Haque & Waytz, 2012)。第三,医院定期对医务人员进行人文课程培训,使他们学习如何更重视患者的人格,增强对患者能动性的认知(Haque & Waytz, 2012)。第四,换位思考,以最大可能给予增强患者人性化体验。譬如手术过程中医务人员可采取不完全掩蔽措施, 使患者的手和脸保持明显, 如使用透明窗帘、 保持患者的可视化等,从而提高人性化水平(Haque & Waytz, 2012)。

5.3加强医务人员和患者的积极人性化接触

一方面,已有研究表明,不同群体间的接触有可能改善群体间的关系,尤其以积极接触的效果最为明显(Barlow et al., 2012;Pettigrew & Tropp, 2011)。而且通常认为积极的接触会有效减少公然的非人性化,个体如果与其先前从未接触过的外群体成员产生积极互动,那么他们就有可能会看到外群体更为积极的一面(Esses et al., 2013)。此外,还有研究表明积极的群体间接触可以有效减轻群体间的威胁(Schmid et al., 2014)。另一方面,元人性化往往会夸大个体所感受到的负面体验(Frey & Tropp, 2006)。因此,倘若医务人员和患者能够彼此积极接触,听取互相的观点,就有可能纠正过于悲观的元认知,从而有效减少医患之间的敌意(Kteily et al., 2016)。

总之,两类群体的接触质量是非人性化与元非人性化的一个重要影响因素(Bruneau et al., 2020)。在医疗实践中,我们需要加强患者与医务人员的积极沟通,使其互相了解各自人性化的一面,此举有助于减少医务人员因去人性化而物化患者,也有助于患者从痛苦的元人性化体验中走出,减弱攻击倾向,积极地配合并参与医疗过程。

此外,在医院条件许可或者政策支持的情况下,还应该积极开展心理调适,缓解患者遭受非人性化的消极情绪状况。例如,当患者遭受去人性化时,往往会引发明显的情绪困扰(Ludwigson, et al., 2020)。情绪困扰是一种多因素的不愉快的情绪体验,会严重损害患者的就医体验和心理健康(Riab,et al., 2019)。此时, 通过引导患者积极进行认知重评, 可以有效缓解情绪困扰 (Guimond et al., 2019)。同时还应将心理干预的重点放在核心自我评价较低的患者当中,引导他们采用积极的认知加工策略,从而降低情绪困扰。

综上所述,只有理解医患失谐发生的原因,才能够更好地“对症下药”。患者所体验到的公然元去人性化、微妙元去人性化都将有可能导致其攻击倾向。要切实避免此类事件的发生,既需要医务工作者能够表现出人性化关怀,树立人性化的形象,又需要患者能够换位思考,体会医务工作者的艰辛,在就医过程中提升自己的人性化体验感。同时还需要医务人员和患者建立积极有效的互相接触与沟通。

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The Effect of Meta-dehumanization on Aggressive Tendency in Medical Interaction:

PatientsPerspective

WANG Pei CHEN Yujie FAN Chunxia

(1 Faculty of Education, East China Normal University, Shanghai 200062, China)

(2 Department of Psychology, Shanghai Normal University, Shanghai 200234, China)Abstract

Meta-dehumanization is one kind of perception that ones own group is perceived by another as less than fully human. In medical interaction, being dehumanized by doctors raises patientsmeta-dehumanization which includes subtle and blatant meta-dehumanization, patientsmeta-dehumanization causes the aggressive tendency against the doctors and even develops into aggressive behaviors. When being subtly dehumanized, patients with higher self-esteem tends to more aggressive than those with lower self-esteem; moreover, patientsblatant meta-dehumanization would provoke social identity threat, generating a desire to reciprocate that hostility toward the offending outgroup and resulting in out-group dehumanization and aggressive tendency against doctors. By building a humane image of medical staff, enhancing the patients humane experience, and strengthening positive humane contact between medical staff and patients, the influence of patientsmeta-dehumanizing beliefs on aggressive tendencies can be suppressed and potential doctor-patient conflicts reduced.

Key words:  doctor-patient interaction; meta-dehumanization; aggressive tendency; blatant meta-dehumanization; subtle meta-dehumanizationF8241096-6436-4A17-B903-5EE4304BA5AB