魏娟,张全安
(东南大学附属第二医院肿瘤科,江苏 南京 210003)
第二线粒体源性胱氨酸酶激活因子及其类似物与肿瘤的相关性研究进展
魏娟,张全安
(东南大学附属第二医院肿瘤科,江苏 南京 210003)
第二线粒体源性胱氨酸酶激活因子(Smac)是一种存在线粒体中并具有促凋亡作用的蛋白,Smac主要通过参与细胞凋亡的线粒体途径和死亡受体途径的下游反应,特异性地与凋亡抑制因子(IAPs)结合,解除IAPs对Caspase的抑制效应从而促进细胞凋亡。在肿瘤细胞中,Smac的过表达可以抑制或延缓肿瘤的发生发展过程,提高细胞浆Smac含量可增强细胞对放化疗的敏感性。人工合成的Smac类似物可通过级联放大效应提高肿瘤细胞对放化疗的敏感性,具有高效、低毒、高通透性等优点,为肿瘤的治疗提供了新的方法和思路,具有重要的临床意义。该研究就Smac、Smac类似物与肿瘤的相关性研究进展做一综述。
Smac;Smac类似物;细胞凋亡;肿瘤
人类第二线粒体源性胱氨酸酶激活因子(Smac),也称为低等电点(PI)的凋亡蛋白抑制剂(IAP)家族直接结合蛋白(DIABLO),是2000年Du[1]和Verhagen[2]同时发现的来源于线粒体的促凋亡蛋白,主要通过抑制IAPs的活性而发挥促凋亡作用。本研究就Smac的结构、促凋亡的机制及其与Smac类似物在肿瘤发生发展、治疗、预后过程中的影响作一综述。
Smac主要通过参与细胞凋亡的线粒体途径和死亡受体途径的下游反应,特异性地与IAPs结合,解除IAPs对半胱氨酸蛋白酶(caspase)的抑制效应从而促进细胞的凋亡。Smac由7个外显子组成,位于12号染色体长臂。全长为1.5 kb的Smac cDNA编码分子量约为27 kDa的239个氨基酸的前体蛋白。其末端的55个氨基酸残基构成了线粒体靶序列(MTS)。Smac进入线粒体后剪切脱离线粒体靶序列,成为成熟的Smac。成熟的Smac才具有促凋亡活性。Smac蛋白在空间上有二聚体和单体两种形态。二聚体Smac蛋白位于线粒体膜间隙内,当释放入胞质时发挥促凋亡的活性[3],单体形态的Smac则无促凋亡功能。Smac蛋白的高表达可促进细胞对凋亡的敏感性及对化疗药诱导凋亡的敏感性,而低表达则提高细胞凋亡的阈值[4]。
2.1 线粒体途径 线粒体途径也称为内源性途径,当受到如抗癌药物、缺氧、DNA破坏、射线照射以及化学信号等的外界因素作用时,激活线粒体外膜渗透效应使Smac从线粒体释放到细胞质。Smac一方面可以直接与细胞色素C(cytochrome-C )、半胱氨酸天冬氨酸蛋白酶-9前体(procaspase-9)、三磷酸脱氧腺苷(dATP)、凋亡蛋白酶活化因子-1(Apaf-1)作用,形成凋亡体激活caspase-9,进而激活效应因子caspase-3,caspase-6,caspase-7。另一方面通过与IAPs作用,拮抗IAPs对caspases活性的抑制作用,诱导细胞凋亡。Smac发挥功能的分子基础是其N端的一段保守序列Ala-Val-Pro-Ile (AVPI),通过这4个疏水氨基酸残基同IAPs的BIR2,BIR3结构域结合,发挥抑制IAPs的功能[6-7]。
2.2 死亡受体途径 死亡受体途径也称为外源性途径,死亡受体主要包括凋亡相关蛋白FAS、肿瘤坏死因子受体(TNFR)、肿瘤坏死因子相关凋亡诱导配体受体(TRAILR)等。肿瘤坏死因子(TNF)与相应TNFR特异性结合发生寡聚化,促进TNFR胞浆部分与接头蛋白Fas相关死亡结构域(FADD)和procaspase-8结合,形成DISC,激活procaspase-8自身切割后形成有活性的caspase-8,再通过TRAIL启动caspase-8-tBid-bax的级联反应,促进成熟的Smac蛋白迅速释放到细胞质中,与IAPs特异性结合并解除对caspase-3的抑制作用,并使得caspase-8激活caspase-3,启动caspase级联激活反应从而导致靶细胞凋亡[8-9]。
2.3 Smac调控因素 Smac受调控的因素很多且过程复杂,Bcl-2家族(tBid、Bax、Bim)、Puma、JNK、caspases、cytochrome-C激发Smac从线粒体释放到细胞质中,而Bcl-2、Bcl-xL、Survivin、XIAP、Apollon、Erk1/2 和c-Myc 阻止其释放过程。XIAP、c-IAP1、IAP2 和Livin促进Smac在细胞质中的降解和泛素化,而Survivin 和NADE 阻止Smac降解过程[10-12]。
Smac在肿瘤中广泛表达,在不同肿瘤组织中的表达情况有差异,Yoo等[13]用免疫组织化学方法分析结果表明在胃癌、结肠癌、肺癌、卵巢癌、前列腺癌等中Smac表达率为62%,在恶性神经鞘病、横纹肌肉瘤、恶性皮肤纤维瘤、平滑肌肉瘤、尤文肉瘤等中Smac表达率为22%,而血管肉瘤和脂肪肉瘤中无表达。随后,相关研究结果证实[14-16],Smac在直肠癌、肝癌、睾丸癌等肿瘤中较正常组织呈低表达或缺失状态,并且Smac低表达可能有抑制细胞凋亡效应。而在宫颈癌和胃癌中恰恰相反,Smac呈高表达状态,Shibata等[17]认为造成表达差异的原因是由于XAF1表达量减少:XAF1是xIAP的直接抑制因子,它的降低可能增加了肿瘤细胞的凋亡阈值,从而促进Smac的合成与释放。而对于Smac在肺癌中的表达程度存有争议。Sekimura等[18]发现肺癌组织中Smac mRNA的表达明显低于正常肺组织;Hofmann等[19]证明在非小细胞肺癌(NSCLC)中Smac的低表达提高了细胞凋亡的阈值。而Zhao等[20]证明Smac mRNA在肺癌组织中的表达阳性率高于相应的正常肺组织。Evzen等[21]亦得出Smac mRNA在NSCLC中的表达高于正常肺组织的结论,Evzen认为其研究结果相反原因在于选择的内参不同。Yang等[22]发现Smac蛋白在NSCLC中的表达明显高于正常组织,作者认为该结果与Smac蛋白的促凋亡效应并不矛盾:因为Smac在NSCLC中高表达可增强促凋亡效应,而肿瘤细胞增殖速度增快,细胞凋亡率并不减少。但导致同一肿瘤中表达差异的具体机制究竟是怎样的,有何意义?现尚未明确,还有待进一步深入探讨。
IAPs通过抗凋亡作用参与肿瘤的发生发展过程,Smac作为IAPs的抑制剂可促进细胞凋亡,它的高表达可以延缓或抑制肿瘤的发生发展,低表达可能预示着肿瘤侵袭力更强和预后更差。Yan等[23]认为xIAP和Smac之间的平衡状态在肿瘤发生发展过程中发挥着重要作用。在肝癌中[15],Smac mRNA和蛋白水平较正常肝组织低,IAPs、survivin表达量的增高与肝癌进展呈正比,说明Smac与肝癌的发生发展相关。Jia等[24]发现将Smac转染至白血病细胞株中,Smac可有效地将肿瘤细胞阻滞于细胞周期的G0/G1期,说明Smac可能通过抑制细胞增殖从而延缓白血病的发生发展过程。而Espinosa等[25]发现宫颈癌组织有Smac mRNA的表达,正常组织中无Smac mRNA的表达,且Smac mRNA的表达与TNM分期、组织类型及病程无关。肾癌中近期两项研究表明Smac mRNA和蛋白水平与肾癌的分期、分级无相关性[23-26]。但Mizutani等[27]用Western blot方法检测肾癌组织的Smac蛋白表达,发现82%的肾细胞癌组织Smac表达量低于正常肾组织,且与肾癌的临床分期及预后具有显著的相关性。Sekimura等[18]发现与正常肺组织相比,肺癌组织中Smac mRNA的表达量明显降低,T2~T4期肺癌组织的Smac mRNA表达量明显较T1期低,Smac mRNA表达量越低的病人预后越差。Chen等[28]研究证明Smac高表达预示患者无病生存期和总生存期相对延长。Zhao等[20]则证明Smac mRNA 在肺癌组织中的阳性率高于相应的正常肺组织,Smac 蛋白在Ⅱ期NSCLC患者组织中的表达明显高于Ⅰ期患者。且他们认为Smac蛋白表达与Ⅰ~Ⅱ期NSCLC患者性别、年龄、血型、病理类型及生存无相关性,而与淋巴结有无转移有关,在无淋巴结转移者组织中明显低于有淋巴结转移者。
目前,肿瘤的治疗强调的是以手术、放化疗、生物治疗及分子靶向治疗等多种方法相结合的综合治疗。Smac作为IAPs的拮抗剂,发挥促细胞凋亡的这一活性,为Smac可以应用于肿瘤治疗提供了可靠的理论依据。提高胞浆Smac含量不仅可增强细胞对化疗药的敏感性,并且增强机体免疫系统对肿瘤细胞的杀伤和清除作用[29]。提高Smac含量的方法包括:一是将编码Smac的表达载体转染肿瘤细胞中,转染Smac的肿瘤细胞在受到化疗药或放疗作用时,促凋亡效应较未转染的细胞显著增强。二是将由Smac蛋白衍生的含AVPI的小分子多肽与载体蛋白结合,转染细胞,增加化疗药对肿瘤细胞的促凋亡作用。但人工切割的小分子多肽存在生物利用度差、细胞膜通透性差、生物体内代谢稳定性差等缺点。目前通过应用荧光标记已开发出一种高通量的药物筛选方法,已经成功合成比自然存在的Smac多肽促凋亡功能强20倍的Smac肽类的模拟物,优点是高效、低毒、细胞膜通透性好等。但因需要高浓度及直接注射到肿瘤部位等缺点,暂无法应用于临床。进而,研究人员合成了非肽类Smac类似物,通过模拟靶向蛋白-蛋白相互作用,激活肿瘤细胞的凋亡途径,目的在于增强结合能力、细胞膜通透性、体内稳定性和生物利用度。Smac类似物可以二价结合IAP的BIR2和BIR3域,通过TNF-α环路发挥促凋亡活性。在TNF-α环路中,Smac类似物激活E3泛素酶活性,导致cIAPs的自身泛素化及蛋白酶体降解,从而导致NIK(NF-κB-inducing kinase)激活,最终导致NF-κB向细胞核内转位指导目的基因的表达,包括作用于TNFR1的TNFA,促使了RIP1从TNFR1释放,去泛素化RIP1与TNFR1、caspase-8、衔接蛋白TRADD、FADD形成复合体II,从而促进细胞凋亡。Smac类似物在肿瘤中被单独应用或者与化、放疗联合应用探索抗肿瘤效应[30-31]。相关文献报告中,Huerta等[32]体内外实验证明小分子Smac类似物(Smac-JP1201)可增加直肠癌细胞对放疗的敏感性,并验证其是通过降低xIAP水平及破坏DNA修复机制诱导凋亡的;最近相关研究也表明Smac类似物(Smac-BV6)可通过抑制DNA修复作用而提高结直肠癌的放疗敏感性[33];Yang等[34]应用小分子Smac类似物(SM-164)作用于头颈部肿瘤,结果表明SM-164是通过诱导cIAP1降解,激活NF-κB同时促进TNF-α产生,下传凋亡信号,激活caspase导致细胞凋亡并增加细胞对放疗的敏感性,随后Yang等[35]研究人员又将SM-164作用于乳腺癌,结果提示SM-164可通过同样机制提高乳腺癌细胞对放疗的敏感性;Greer等[36]报告Smac 类似物JP1201 能使非小细胞肺癌细胞对多种化疗药物诱导的凋亡敏感性增高。最新研究表明Smac类似物可提高儿童急性淋巴细胞白血病的化疗敏感性[37]。近期一项药物实验[38]将纳米颗粒与Smac多肽结合,借助纳米颗粒体积小体表面积大的特点,在耦合Smac多肽后可以与形成多个结合面与IAPs家族结合,从而发挥更大的抗肿瘤活性。肿瘤细胞对放化疗抵抗是肿瘤治疗过程中的主要难题,逆转放化疗抵抗、增加放化疗敏感性的靶向治疗一直是肿瘤学界的研究热点,Smac/Smac类似物既可促进肿瘤细胞凋亡,同时也能发挥放化疗增敏作用,由此可见,Smac及Smac类似物作为新型的靶向药物应用于肿瘤治疗指日可待。
近年来,Smac的促凋亡功能已得到广泛而深入的研究和阐明,IAPs在肿瘤中的广泛表达也为Smac提供了作用靶点。通过调节细胞浆Smac的含量可以有效地提高肿瘤细胞对放化疗敏感性,而且通过Smac功能与结构的研究发现AVPI功能序列也为开发以肽类和非肽类的Smac类似物奠定了基础,将为肿瘤治疗方面提供新的思路和好的应用前景。但是应用于临床目前仍存在一系列问题尚待解决:如同一类肿瘤中Smac表达情况尚不统一,Smac的过表达对正常细胞是否有不好的影响,Smac/Smac类似物最佳治疗浓度的选择,敏感、有效的肿瘤细胞类型和化疗药物如何筛选,Smac在不同肿瘤中发挥生物学作用的具体机制,Smac类似物在人体中的毒副反应及疗效尚不明确。因此,Smac及Smac类似物在临床的真正广泛应用,还需要更深入的研究,这也将为肿瘤的诊断、个体化治疗开辟新的方向和途径。
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Advances in the research of the relationship between Smac,Smac mimetic and tumor
WEI Juan,ZHANG Quanan
(DepartmentofOncology,TheSecondAffiliatedHospital,SoutheastUniversity,Nanjing,Jiangsu210003,China)
Smac is a newly found protein promoting apoptosis of mitochondria,which can promote cell apoptosis and was initially discovered independently by two groups in 2000.Smac has a pro-apoptotic effect that is mediated by its interaction with IAPs and the release of caspases from them.Overexpression of Smac in cancer cells can promote its cells apoptosis and postpone its development.Improving content of Smac in the cytoplasm can sensitize these cells to chemotherapy and radiotherapy.Smac mimetics is a potent enhancer of chemotherapy and radiotherapy,which can overcome the resistance of several cancers to anti-cancer therapies and have the advantages of high efficiency,low toxicity and high permeability.It is clear that Smas has great therapeutic potential for the treatment of cancer and has important clinical significance.In this article,we reviewed the recent advances in the study of the correlation among Smac,Smac mimetic and cancer.
Smac;Smac mimetics;Cell apoptosis;Cancer
张全安,男,主任医师,研究方向:消化道肿瘤的诊治,E-mail:13905152166@139.com
10.3969/j.issn.1009-6469.2016.10.003
2016-02-15,
2016-07-06)