Submarine Cables and the Marine Environment： Enhancing Sustainable and Harmonious Interactions

Kingsley Ekwere



Submarine Cables and the Marine Environment： Enhancing Sustainable and Harmonious Interactions

Kingsley Ekwere*

Submarine cable network has become key facilitators of modern life. The importance of efficient and high-speed international telecommunications cannot be over emphasized， especially in this era of information superhighway. The backbone of global information infrastructure is now preponderantly composed of fibre-optic submarine cables. To meet the ever increasing need for better and faster telecommunications， extended and highly sophisticated fibre-optic submarine cable networks have been constructed across the oceans and around the continents. However， the communications revolution has resulted in great pressure on vulnerable marine ecosystems and biodiversity， although not apparent currently. This paper aims to explore the interactions of submarine cables with seabed ecosystems. The key challenge for conservation， protection and sustainable management/use of coastal seas and deep offshore waters is to balance the benefits of the communications revolution against any potential environmental impacts. Demonstrating that cable operations are benign to the marine environment，this paper argues that the harmonious interactions between operators of telecommunication cables and other seabed users are critical in advancing the goals to reach environmental sustainability， and protect and conserve the marine environment.

Submarine cables； Ecological sustainability； Ocean governance

I. Introduction

Submarine cables were born around early nineteenth century. The first submarine telegraph cable， constructed from copper wire and gutta percha， was laid across the English channel from Dover to Calais in 1850.1Stewart Ash， The Development of Submarine Cables， in Douglas R. Burnett， Robert C. Beckman and Tara M. Davenport， Submarine Cables： The Handbook of Law and Policy，The Netherlands： Martinus Nijhoff Publishers， 2014， p. 20.The first long-term successful transatlantic submarine cable was laid between Newfoundland， Canada and Ireland in 1866； and the first trans-pacific cables were completed in 1902-03 linking the United States mainland to Hawaii in 1902 and Guam to Philippines in 1903.2Submarine Communications Cable， at https：//en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/Submarine_ communication_cable， 7 May 2016.This initial breakthrough greatly enhanced the communication and dissemination of information over a long distance.3Submarine Communications Cable， at https：//en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/Submarine_ communication_cable， 7 May 2016.Although only a few messages could be transmitted at that time， the development marked a new dawn in the submarine cable industry.4Lionel Carter， Douglas Burnett， Stephen Drew， Graham Marle， Lonnie Hagadorn， Deborah Barlette-McNeil and Nigel Irvine， Submarine Cables and the Oceans： Connecting the World （UNEP-WCMC Biodiversity Series No. 31）， ICPC/UNEP/UNEP-WCMC， 2009， pp. 12～13，at http：//www.unep-wcmc.org/resources/publications/UNEP_WCMC_bio_series/31.aspx ［hereinafter “UNEP/ICPC Report”］.New methods and techniques in laying and design and improvement in materials increased the durability of the telegraph cables. The result was that by the twentieth century， much of the world was connected by a globalised network that enabled rapid communication of information for government， trade and the general public.5UNEP/ICPC Report， p. 13.Two major events， namely， the rise in the prominence of radio telegraph technology during World War I and the economic depression of the 1930s， affected the fortune of the submarine telegraph industry.6Stewart Ash， The Development of Submarine Cables， in Douglas R. Burnett， Robert C. Beckman and Tara M. Davenport， Submarine Cables： The Handbook of Law and Policy，The Netherlands： Martinus Nijhoff Publishers， 2014， pp. 27～28.

The gradual decline of the submarine telegraph cable witnessed the birth of the submarine telephone cable in the mid 1930s.7The last submarine telephone cable was laid between India and the United Arab Emirates in 1986， bringing an end to the era of submarine telephone cable. See Stewart Ash， The Development of Submarine Cables， in Douglas R. Burnett， Robert C. Beckman and Tara M. Davenport， Submarine Cables： The Handbook of Law and Policy， The Netherlands：Martinus Nijhoff Publishers， 2014， p. 32.“A polyethylene encased cablewith copper coaxial core was developed that allowed multiple voice channels to be released.”8UNEP/ICPC Report， p. 14.Between 1955 and 1956， Scotland and Newfoundland was connected with two cables known as TAT 1. This development ushered in the submarine coaxial telephone era.9UNEP/ICPC Report， p. 14.By 1960， with technological development in design and laying technique， longer cables were laid in deeper oceans.10UNEP/ICPC Report， p. 14.

A great technological leap in the 1970s and 1980s saw the development of satellite as a primary means of communication with greater capacity and lower cost.11Stewart Ash， The Development of Submarine Cables， in Douglas R. Burnett， Robert C. Beckman and Tara M. Davenport， Submarine Cables： The Handbook of Law and Policy，The Netherlands： Martinus Nijhoff Publishers， 2014， p. 32.Although the submarine cable technology was greatly challenged by satellite， “a fibre of glassy material constructed in a cladded structure”， discovered in 1966 by Dr. Charles Kao and Dr. George Hockham， was found to have a larger information capacity and advantages in material cost.12George Hockham and Charles Kao， Dialectric-Fibre Surface Waveguides for Optical Frequencies， Proceedings of the Institute of Electrical Engineers， Vol. 113， Issue 7， 1966，pp. 1151～1158.This unprecedented breakthrough led to the development of the fibre optic systems in the late 1970s. The first submarine fibre optic system was laid on the ocean floor in 1980s and by 1986 the submarine fibre optic system had taken over.13Stewart Ash， The Development of Submarine Cables， in Douglas R. Burnett， Robert C. Beckman and Tara M. Davenport， Submarine Cables： The Handbook of Law and Policy，The Netherlands： Martinus Nijhoff Publishers， 2014， pp. 33～34.In 1988， the first transoceanic fibre optic cable linking the United States， United Kingdom and France was installed. As the year progressed， submarine cables “started to outperform satellites in terms of the volume， speed and economics of data and voice communications.”14UNEP/ICPC Report， p. 16.

By the mid-1980s， the information and communication sector received yet another boost - the Internet traffic. A combination of these two technologies， i.e. submarine cables and the Internet， has sustained and revolutionized the sector. Today， while the cables carry large volumes of voice and data traffic with speed and security， the Internet makes the data and information accessible and usable for business， commerce， education and entertainment.15UNEP/ICPC Report， p. 16.“It is estimated that about 213 independent cable systems amounting to approximately 877，122 kilometers（km） of fibre optic cables form the global network.”16Douglas R. Burnett， Tara M. Davenport and Robert C. Beckman， Introduction： Why Submarine Cables？， in Douglas R. Burnett， Robert C. Beckman and Tara M. Davenport eds.， Submarine Cables： The Handbook of Law and Policy， The Netherlands： Martinus Nijhoff Publishers， 2014， p. 2.Most countries now depend on submarine cables to meet their communications needs. Statistics indicate that as of mid-2012， as few as 21 nations and territories remained unconnected to the fibre optic network.17Douglas R. Burnett， Tara M. Davenport and Robert C. Beckman， Introduction： Why Submarine Cables？， in Douglas R. Burnett， Robert C. Beckman and Tara M. Davenport eds.， Submarine Cables： The Handbook of Law and Policy， The Netherlands： Martinus Nijhoff Publishers， 2014， pp. 1～2. It should be pointed out that these nations and territories already have ongoing projects to get connected.Little wonder then that the United Nations has described these cables as “critical communications infrastructure” extremely important to the economy and security of all nations.18General Assembly Resolution 65/37A， 7 December 2010.While significant gains have continued to trail the fibre-optic revolution， its potential and actual impacts on the marine environment have become a source of concern for governments and international organizations， prompting global efforts aimed at ensuring conservation， protection and sustainable management/use of coastal seas and deep offshore waters.

In the face of increasing human activities in the marine environment， it has become vital for all parties and stakeholders to communicate and cooperate in the harmonious development and conservation of our last frontier.

International communications are regulated by international law and treaties. These legal frameworks， now considered to be customary international law， set forth the rights of signatory parties to lay， repair， own and operate submarine cables in international waters.

II. Cables and Ecologically Sustainable Oceans：A Conceptual Understanding

The original concept of sustainable development is articulated in the report of the Brundtland Commission， “Our Common Future”， which states that sustainable development is：

development that meets the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs. It contains within it twokey concepts： （a） the concept of ‘needs'， in particular the essential needs of the world's poor， to which overriding priority should be given； and （b） the idea of limitations imposed by the state of technology and social organization on the environment's ability to meet present and future needs. Thus the goals of economic and social development must be defined in terms of sustainability in all countries - developed or developing， market-oriented or centrally planned. Interpretations will vary but must share certain general features and must flow from a consensus on the basic concept of sustainable development and on a broad strategic framework for achieving it.19World Commission on Environment and Development （WCED）， Our Common Future，Oxford： Oxford University Press， 1987， p. 43.

This definition， commonly known as the Brundtland definition， highlights what has since become one of the major issues of contention with sustainable development. This work will not trace the historical evolution of sustainable development but will highlight the central ideas and emphasize its importance in ensuring harmony between submarine cables and the marine environment.

The concept of sustainable development has received wide ranges of debates or critiques， however， there is as yet no sufficiently robust theoretical and analytical framework against which decisions aimed at achieving a more sustainable form of development could be assessed.20John S. Dryzek， The Politics of the Earth： Environmental Discourses， New York： Oxford University Press， 1997； Michael Redclift， The Multiple Dimensions of Sustainable Development， Geography， Vol. 76， No. 1， 1991， pp. 36～42.It might be useful from the onset to highlight the paradox inherent in the term of sustainable development. The term ‘sustainability’，derived from ecology， describes a process or state that continues forever. On the other hand， ‘development’ implied continued use of natural resources and the modification of the environment. When combined together， the term sustainable development reveals an amazing contradiction which may not be apparent sometimes. Although they are worlds apart， the two could be brought together when development and environmental protection go hand in hand.21Yosef Jabreen， A Knowledge Map for Describing Variegated and Conflict Domains of Sustainable Development， Journal of Environmental Planning and Management， Vol. 47，Issue 4， 2004， pp. 626～627.

A major challenge facing advocates of sustainable development is that people view and interpret sustainable development from different disciplinary realms. Some of these realms include ecology， economics， law， trade and even politics.Acknowledging these divisions， Richard Norgaard said “environmentalists want environmental systems sustained， consumers want consumption sustained，while workers want jobs sustained”.22Richard B. Norgaad， Sustainable Development： A Co-Evolutionary View， Futures， Vol. 20，Issue 6， 1988， p. 607.A groundbreaking scholarly effort in piecing together the different literature of sustainable development is the work of Jabreen.23Yosef Jabreen， A Knowledge Map for Describing Variegated and Conflict Domains of Sustainable Development， Journal of Environmental Planning and Management， Vol. 47，Issue 4， 2004， p. 628.Jabreen developed a set of lenses through which he described sustainable development.24Yosef Jabreen， A Knowledge Map for Describing Variegated and Conflict Domains of Sustainable Development， Journal of Environmental Planning and Management， Vol. 47，Issue 4， 2004， p. 628.However， an illuminating discourse of sustainable development is given by Dryzek.25John S. Dryzek， The Politics of the Earth： Environmental Discourses， New York： Oxford University Press， 1997.For Dryzek， sustainability should be seen as a broad field of inquiry， encompassing issues of cultural integrity， justice， and governance as well as questions of ecological limits to economic activities， and the individual right to safe and secure livelihood.26John S. Dryzek， The Politics of the Earth： Environmental Discourses， New York： Oxford University Press， 1997.Judge Cassese classifies sustainable development as a general guideline laid down in soft law documents and propounded in treaties and declarations. Cassese relies upon the definition of sustainable development in the Report of the Brundtland Commission and defines sustainable development as “development that meets the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs”.27Ian Brownlie， Principles of Public International Law， 7th edition， New York： Oxford University Press， 2008， p. 278.Birnie and Boyle on their part see sustainable development as composing the following elements： （a） the integration of environmental protection and economic development. This element reflects Principle 4 of the Rio Declaration which provides that “environmental protection shall constitute an integral part of the development process and cannot be considered in isolation from it”； （b） the right to development. Principle 3 of the Rio Declaration provides that “the right to development must be fulfilled so as to equitably meet developmental and environmental needs of present and future generations”； （c） sustainable utilization and conservation of natural resources；（d） inter-generational equity； （e） inequity within the existing economic system.28Patricia Birnie and Alan Boyle， International Law and the Environment， 2nd edition， Oxford： Oxford University Press， 2002， pp. 86～87.In 1991， Justice Brian Preston popularized the concept of ecological sustainable development （ESD） as a new paradigm which emphasizes the integration of economy and environment and involves a cluster of principles， such as the principle of sustainable use， principle of integration， precautionary principle， intergenerational and intra-generational equity， conservation of biological diversity and ecological integrity and internalization of external environmental costs. These principles， if implemented， will lead to a shift from a world in which development of the environment occurs without regard to environmental consequences to one where a culture of sustainability extends to government， private development interests， communities and individuals. It is a development that improves the total quality of life， both now and in the future， in a way that maintains the ecological processes on which life depends.29At http：//www.lec.lawlink.nsw.gov.au， 2 May 2016.The economist Robert Solow interprets sustainable development as “an obligation to conduct ourselves that we leave to the future the option or the capacity to be as well off as we are”. What may be gleaned from Solow’s definition is that there exists a moral obligation not to overindulge at the expense of future generations.

What may be apparent from the totality of the above is that the definitions of sustainable development need to become broader to accommodate all aspects of the concept. A useful guide therefore lies in identifying the core issues that sustainable development should address. Although the list may not be exhaustive， below are some of the indicators of sustainable development. Sustainable development should aim at the satisfaction of basic human needs and the reduction of inequality in the distribution of environmental costs and benefits. To achieve the above， there is a need for a balance of responsibility between all the parties， i.e.， the government， the society and the industry.

A. Applying Sustainable Development Principles to Oceans

The ocean， once thought to be a vast reservoir capable of absorbing limitless waste and able to withstand increasing human pressure， is increasingly vulnerable. Being an integral part of our planet， the ocean is an absolutely essential component of human lives， livelihoods and the environment that sustains us. As demonstrated in the foregoing analysis， there are many ways in which the concept of sustainable development underpins and enriches ocean use and conservation.

Duties and rights of States with respect to the sustainable use， conservation and protection of the marine and coastal environment are contained in an array of legally binding global and regional agreements. The most comprehensive treaty on the oceans is the 1982 United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea （UNCLOS）.30United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea， opened for signature on December 10，1982， in force on November 16， 1994， United Nations Treaty Series， Vol. 1833， p. 396. As of 29 April 2016， there were 167 State Parties to the Convention.Apart from outlining traditional high seas rights， UNCLOS sets out the obligation to protect and preserve the marine environment， including rare and fragile ecosystems and the habitats of depleted， threatened or endangered species and other forms of marine life. There are frequent reference to sustainable use，conservation， protection and preservation of the marine environment and promotion of the economic and social advancement of all people in UNCLOS.31Preamble， UNCLOS.For instance，Part XII of UNCLOS notes that States have the obligation to protect and preserve the marine environment.32Article 192， UNCLOS.

The 1995 United Nations Fish Stocks Agreement （UNFSA）33The United Nations Agreement for the Implementation of the Provisions of the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea of 10 December 1982 relating to the Conservation and Management of Straddling Fish Stocks and Highly Migratory Fish Stocks （in force as from 11 December 2001）. At http：//www.un.org/Deptslos/convention_ agreement， 7 May 2016.also contains several references to sustainable development principles. UNFSA implements UNCLOS by elaborating on and specifying certain UNCLOS provisions in the light of evidence of overfishing. To address these concerns， it imposes stringent obligations on both coastal States and fishing States with respect to their management of highly migratory fish stocks and straddling fish stocks. UNFSA explicitly incorporates modern precautionary and ecosystem-based approaches to fisheries management， conservation and long-term sustainability of fish stocks.

The concept of sustainable development is often referred to in the 1992 Convention on Biological Diversity （CBD）341992 United Nations Convention on Biological Diversity （in force from 29 December 1993）. See United Nations Treaty Series， Vol. 1760， p. 79.as well. CBD is based on the principle that conservation of biological diversity is a common concern of humankind. Its objectives are the conservation of biological diversity， the sustainable use of its components and the fair and equitable sharing of the benefits arising out of the utilization of genetic resources.

At the regional level， the United Nations Environment Programme’s Regional Seas Programme （RSP）35UNEP， UNEP-Sponsored Programme for the Protection of Oceans and Coastal Areas，UNEP Regional Seas Reports and Studies No. 135， Nairobi： Oceans and Coastal Areas Programme Activity Centre， UNEP， 1991.was established to address the accelerating degradation of the world’s oceans and coastal areas through the sustainable management and use of marine and coastal environment， including resources.

In total， the global and regional agreements form a web of obligations for States regarding biodiversity and ecosystems， including the duty to conserve and preserve the marine environment. They also underscore the need for development to proceed hand in hand with ecological sustainability. What comes out rather clear from the above is that a healthy ocean is fundamental for achieving global sustainability. It reaffirms the linkage among social， economic and environmental pillars of sustainable development and the need for a balance among them. It equally indicates that States can derive optimal economic and social benefits from a healthy ocean whilst protecting the environment. Thus， the highest priority must be given to conserving the world’s oceans and marine species. The conservation and protection of ecological integrity should be a fundamental constraint on all ocean users.

B. Applying Sustainable Development Principles to Cables

A theoretical and holistic approach to assessing the impact of fibre optic cables on the sustainable use of the oceans is presented by Carter， Burnett， et al.36See UNEP/ICPC Report.Rather than trying to develop a sustainable framework for submarine cables through the three pillars， they provide in their survey an evidenced-based synopsis of the interactions between the marine environment and cables. These authors argue that submarine cables are benign to the marine environment. Following almost half a century of optical communications， standardization， safety and environmental sustainability are of great importance throughout the life cycle of fibre optic cables. From manufacturing， usage， scrapping to disassembling， potential impacts on the environment should be lowered to the maximum possible extent.37Malcolm Johnson， Optical Fibres， Cables and Systems， International Telecommunication Union Manual， Geneva： International Telecommunication Union， 2009.Below is an extensive discourse on the interactions between cables and the marine environment.

III. A Brief Analysis of International Legal Framework on Submarine Cables

The desire to regulate and protect submarine cables stems from the fact that they were recognized as public good. This awareness helped to inscribe the legal protection of submarine cables on the agenda of seven international conferences from 1863 to 1913.38United National Documents on the Development and Codification of International Law，Supplement to American Journal of International Law， Vol. 41， No. 4， October 1947， at http：//legal.un.org/ilc/documentation/english/ASIL_1947_study.pdf， 18 May 2016.The first international instrument that addressed the rights and obligations of States in relation to submarine cables was the International Convention for the Protection of Submarine Telegraph Cables （hereinafter “1884 Convention”）.39Convention for the Protection of Submarine Telegraph Cables 14 March 1884 （entered into force 1 May 1888） ［hereinafter “1884 Convention”］. The 1884 Convention was adopted in Paris in March 1884 after a two year conference. Submarine telegraph cables were the predecessor to submarine fibre optic telecommunications cables. As of 2 April 2013， there were 40 State Parties to the Convention.This was followed by the 1958 Geneva Conventions on the High Seas and the Continental Shelf （hereinafter “The 1958 Geneva Conventions”）. Lastly， the UNCLOS was adopted and being later in time， is recognized as the applicable legal framework regulating submarine cables. Generally， these Conventions， apart from making provisions for the protection of submarine cables from damage， also regulate the laying， repair and maintenance of submarine cables. Looked at very closely， the 1884 Convention is an independent convention dealing only with the protection of submarine telegraph cables. The 1958 Geneva Conventions and the 1982 UNCLOS are however different， because in addition to cable protection， they deal extensively with other aspects of the law of the sea. Standing together， these conventions cover both the protection of submarine cables （as provided for in the 1884 Cable Convention）40It is important to note that Articles II， IV and V of the 1884 Convention were incorporated into Articles 27， 28 and 29 of the 1958 High Seas Convention and Articles 113， 114 and 115 of UNCLOS.and the freedom to lay， repair and maintain these cables.

IV. Maritime Zones and the Right to Lay， Repair and Maintain Submarine Cables

A. Territorial Seas

All stakeholders41These include the rights and interests of coastal States， other States and the submarine cable industry.have interest in ensuring that cable laying， repair， and maintenance are carried out with minimum or no damage.42Damage could interfere with telecommunications of several States as was the case when the East African Marine System （TEAMS） was damaged on 25 February 2012. TEAMS is an initiative spearheaded by the Government of Kenya to link the country to the rest of the world through a submarine fibre optic cable. The TEAMS cable was accidentally cut by a ship anchored off the coast of Mombasa. More than half of networks in Kenya and Uganda were affected. At http：//en.wikipedia.org/wiki/TEAMS_syst， 2 May 2016. Damage to submarine cable may also incur liability， see Submarine Cable Company v. Dixon， The Law Times Reports， Vol. X， 1864， p. 32 and The Clara Kilam， Law Reports， Admiralty and Ecclesiastical Cases， Vol. III， 1870， p. 161.Under UNCLOS，every State has the right to establish the breadth of its territorial sea up to a limit not exceeding 12 nautical miles， measured from the baseline determined in accordance with this Convention.43Article 3， UNCLOS.In accordance with this provision， the right to regulate all activities， including the laying， repair and maintenance of submarine cables within the territorial sea， belongs to the coastal State. However， this right is not at large. It must be exercised “subject to this Convention and other rules of international law”.44Article 2（3）， UNCLOS.Moreover， ships of all States must be allowed to have the right of innocent passage.45Article 17， UNCLOS.Coastal States may also adopt laws and regulations which are in conformity with this Convention and other rules of international law in relation to innocent passage through the territorial sea in respect of the protection of submarine cables.46Article 21（1）（c）， UNCLOS.

B. Archipelagic Waters

An archipelagic State47Archipelagic State means a State constituted wholly by one or more archipelagos. See Article 46（a）， UNCLOS.has sovereignty over the waters enclosed by its archipelagic baselines known as archipelagic waters. This right is to be exercisedsubject to the right of innocent passage for ships of all States.48Article 52， UNCLOS.They may also regulate ships exercising innocent passage in order to protect submarine cables.49Article 21（1）（c）， UNCLOS.While archipelagic States have the right to regulate submarine cables in their archipelagic waters， they must respect submarine cables laid by other States and passing through their waters. They should permit the maintenance and replacement of such cables upon receiving due notice of their location and the intention to repair or replace them.50Article 51（2）， UNCLOS.

C. Exclusive Economic Zone51Under Article 55， the EEZ “is an area beyond and adjacent to the territorial sea， subject to the specific legal regime established in this Part， under which the rights and jurisdiction of the coastal State and the rights and freedoms of other States are governed by the relevant provisions of this Convention.”

States may claim an Exclusive Economic Zone （EEZ） not extending beyond 200 nautical miles from the baselines from which the breadth of the territorial sea is measured.52In the EZZ， the coastal State has “sovereign rights for the purpose of exploring and exploiting， conserving and managing the natural resources， whether living or non-living， of the waters superjacent to the seabed and of the seabed and its subsoil， and with regard to other activities for the economic exploitation and exploration of the zone， such as the production of energy from the water， currents and the winds”.53Article 56（1）（a）， UNCLOS.It equally has jurisdiction with regards to： （i） the establishment and use of artificial islands， installations and structures， （ii） marine scientific research， and （iii） the protection and preservation of the marine environment.54Article 56（1）（b）， UNCLOS.There are however certain limits on the coastal State’s rights over its EEZ. In exercising their rights and performing their duties in the EEZ， coastal States shall have due regard to the rights and duties of other States. Moreover， all States enjoy the freedom of laying submarine cables in the EEZ， and other internationally lawful uses of the seas related to this freedom， such as the operation of submarine cables.55Article 58（1）， UNCLOS.

52 Article 57， UNCLOS.

D. Continental Shelf56The continental shelf is defined as “the seabed and subsoil of the submarine areas that extends beyond its territorial sea throughout the natural prolongation of its land territory to the outer edge of the continental margin.”

A coastal State may claim a continental shelf up to a distance of 200 nm or if the outer edge of its continental margin extends beyond 200 nm，57The complex formula to determine the outer edge of the continental margin is set out under Article 76（4） of UNCLOS.it can claim an extended continental shelf up to 350 nm from the baseline from which the territorial sea is measured or 100 nm from the 2，500 metres isobaths.58Article 76（5）， UNCLOS.On the continental shelf， a coastal State exercises “sovereign rights for the purpose of exploring it and exploiting its natural resources”， such as “mineral and other non-living resources of the seabed and subsoil”.59Article 77（1） and （4）， UNCLOS.These rights must not be exercised in a manner which will infringe or result in any “unjustifiable interference” with navigation and other rights and freedoms of other States as provided in UNCLOS.60Article 78（2）， UNCLOS.On the continental shelf， all States are entitled to lay submarine cables61Article 79（1）， UNCLOS.and coastal States have an obligation not to impede the laying and maintenance of such cables.62Article 79（2）， UNCLOS.When laying submarine cables， UNCLOS requires coastal States to further ensure that the possibilities of repairing cables are not prejudiced.63Article 79（5）， UNCLOS.The right to delineate the course for the laying of pipelines （but not cables） is subject to the consent of the coastal State. This provision implies that a coastal State may control the delineation of pipelines， however， no similar right exists in the case of submarine cables.64Article 79（3）， UNCLOS. See also Robin Rolf Churchill and Alan Vaughan Lowe， The Law of the Sea， Manchester： Manchester University Press， 1999， p. 174； Myron H. Nordquist，Satya N. Nandan and Shabtai Rosenne eds.， United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea 1982： A Commentary， Vol. II， The Netherlands： Martinus Nijhoff Publishers， 1993， p. 915， para. 79.8（c）. UNCLOS， Article 79， paragraph 3 deals with the course of pipelines， and covers both new and existing pipelines. It places a limitation on the freedom of all States to lay pipelines （but not cables） on the continental shelf by making the delineation of the course for those pipelines subject to the consent of the coastal State. This is consistent with paragraph 2， which allows a coastal State to take reasonable measures for the prevention，reduction， and control of pollution from pipelines.

E. Extended Continental Shelf

On the extended continental shelf beyond the EEZ， the regime of the freedom of the high seas applies.65Ian Brownlie， Principles of Public International Law， 7th edition， New York： Oxford University Press， p. 242.It includes the freedom to lay submarine cables with due regard for the interests of other States exercising their high sea freedoms.66Article 87（2）， UNCLOS.

F. High Seas67The term high seas covers “all parts of the sea that are not included in the exclusive economic zone， in the territorial sea or in the internal waters of a State， or in the archipelagic State”. See Article 86， UNCLOS.

The high seas are open to all States.68Article 86， UNCLOS.UNCLOS Article 87 provides that the freedom of the high seas includes freedom to lay submarine cables， subject to Part VI.69A significant proportion of the freedoms of the high seas are applicable in the EEZ （see Article 58）， and the continental shelf （see Article 77）. Article 56（3） locates both the EEZ and continental shelf in the same geographical area by providing that the rights of the coastal States in the EEZ with respect to the seabed and the subsoil shall be exercised in accordance with Part VI on the continental shelf.These freedom shall be exercised by all States with due regard firstly for the interests of other States in their exercise of the freedom of the high seas and secondly to activities in the area.70Article 87（2）， UNCLOS.

G. The Area71The Area means “the seabed and the ocean floor and subsoil thereof， beyond the limits of national jurisdiction”. See Article 1（1）， UNCLOS.

The exploration and exploitation of mineral resources of the Area is governed by the International Seabed Authority （ISA）.72Article 1（3）， UNCLOS.The ISA and the International Cable Protection Committee （ICPC） have signed a memorandum of understanding to advance cooperation on the use of the Area. The memorandum includes exchange of information on cable routing and prospecting and exploration areas.73Memorandum of Understanding between the International Cable Protection Committee and the International Seabed Authority signed on 15 December 2009， Annex to Note by the Secretariat at the 16th Session， 26 April to 7 May 2010， International Seabed Authority， at http：//www.isa.org.jm/files/documents/EN/Regs/MOU-ICPC.pdf， 19 May 2016.The Areais considered part of the high seas under UNCLOS. The freedoms provided under Article 87， which include the right to lay submarine cables will apply to the Area. This freedom is further amplified under Article 112（1）， which provides that all States are “entitled to lay submarine cables … on the bed of the high seas beyond the continental shelf”， provided that when laying submarine cables， States shall have due regard to cables already in position. Moreover， the possibility of repairing existing cables should not be prejudiced.74Article 112（2）， UNCLOS.

UNCLOS defines the Area and its resources as “the common heritage of mankind”. No nation is allowed to lay claim to any part of the Area or its resources. Regarding the resources， all rights to the resources are vested in mankind as a whole. Consequently， companies wishing to exploit the mineral resources of the Area will have to enter into a profit sharing agreement， which stipulates that the profits derived from mineral resources of the Area will be shared with developing countries.

H. The Industry

Major players in marine operations are cable companies. Although UNCLOS affords the freedom to lay cables to “all States”， in reality， private companies rather than governments generally own， operate and repair cables. It is noted by the Virginia Commentary on UNCLOS that the term “all States” should not be read too restrictively as in practice many submarine cables and pipelines are privately owned and are laid by corporations and other private entities. The term therefore contemplates the rights of States and their nationals.75Myron Nordquist， Neil Grandy， Satya N. Nandan and Shabtai Rosenne eds.， United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea 1982： A Commentary， Volume III， Leiden： Martinus Nijhoff， 1995， p. 264. Professor Rainer Lagoni has however， argued that under the general principles of treaties， the freedom to lay is only exercisable by private cable owners if it is recognized in national legislation. This， according to him， is because only a self-executing provision of an international agreement can create a right or obligation for a private entity. Article 112 of UNCLOS addressing States and not private entities is not a self-executing provision and does not apply to cable owners directly. See Rainer Lagoni， Legal Aspects of Submarine High Voltage Direct Current （HVDC） Cables， New Jersey： Transaction Publishers， 1998， pp. 12～13.These cable owners and operators， who are usually submarine cable manufacturers and suppliers and cable surveyors and installers， all have an interest in ensuring that cable laying， repair and maintenance comply with globally acceptable criteria in order to distil elements ofbest practice.

In summary， UNCLOS establishes the rights and duties of all stakeholders，aiming to balance the interests of coastal States in offshore zones with the interests of all States/other users in using the oceans. In doing so， UNCLOS makes a clear distinction between the exercise of sovereignty within internal waters， archipelagic waters and the territorial sea， and the exercise of sovereign rights in the EEZ and on the continental shelf. Sovereign rights pertain to a functional jurisdiction， notably over resources and environmental protection， which are more limited in character than sovereignty.

V. The International Marine Environment

After finding proofs that the oceans were not bottomless dumping grounds with limitless assimilative capacity and ceaseless ability to surrender their resources， global concern for the status of the marine environment heightened during the latter part of the twentieth century. Increasing footprint coupled with unsustainable and environmentally unfriendly exploitation of mineral resources as well as the destruction of marine biodiversity has made the oceans a focal point of growing environmental consciousness.

The marine ecosystem is the largest aquatic system on our planet. Life on our planet is dependent upon the oceans， which are the sources of wealth， opportunity and abundance. About 71 percent of the surface of this planet is covered with water. The water depth averages 3.8 km， a volume of 1370 x 106km3. The value of marine ecosystem is enormous. They provide us with food， energy and water and sustain the livelihoods of hundreds of millions of people. They are the highways for international trade as well as the main stabilizer of global climate. Marine fisheries account for 85 percent of global fish catch. Maritime shipping is involved in the transport of over 80 percent of world’s merchandise trade.76A. N. Subramanian， Introduction： Marine Environment， at http：//saltwaterstudies.com/wpcontent/uploads/2015/07/Introduction-Marine-Environment.pdf， 19 May 2016.

Apart from over-harvesting， the cumulative impact of land-based activities has occasioned great pressure on the oceans. This has resulted in the destruction of wetlands， mangroves and coral reefs. Oceans have also become ultimate sinks for discharges of waste of all sorts carried by rivers and wind from land based sources，including coastal mega cities. Other threats， which come from the transportof hazardous waste， operational and accidental discharge of oil， discharge of radioactive materials at sea， nuclear testing and the transport of alien species in the ballast water of ships， are becoming increasingly common， adversely affecting the ocean and its resources.77A. N. Subramanian， Introduction： Marine Environment， p. 30， at http：//saltwaterstudies.com/ wp-content/uploads/2015/07/Introduction-Marine-Environment.pdf， 19 May 2016.

Since the marine environment is a fragile ecosystem， environmental stewardship should be the vision for all stakeholders. Apart from seeking an environment of balanced interest， there is a need to ensure and enhance a viable and healthy marine environment in the deep oceans.

VI. Legal and Policy Regime for the Protection and Preservation of the Marine Environment

The legal and policy regime for the protection and preservation of the marine environment is established in the UNCLOS. It provides the central regime for ocean governance at the global level. UNCLOS establishes the legal duty of all States to protect and preserve the marine environment.78Part XII， Article 192， UNCLOS.Numerous provisions address the conservation of the marine environment and the protection of marine wildlife.

Part XII of UNCLOS， entitled “Protection and Preservation of the Environment”， includes both general and specific obligations of State Parties to prevent，reduce and control pollution. The regimes of the sea designated by UNCLOS are very crucial for marine conservation， since it places the burden of marine conservation on coastal States. Undisputedly， coastal States are in the best position to apply and enforce the Convention. In this regard， they can adopt whatever measures they feel necessary to protect the marine environment. However， since the power of the coastal State ends where the high seas begin， the UNCLOS contains provisions applicable to all States， which require all States to protect the environment and reduce pollution.

Article 193 of UNCLOS79This provision is similar to Principle 21 of the 1972 Stockholm Declaration.recognizes the sovereign right of States to “exploit their natural resources pursuant to their environmental policies and in accordance with their duty to protect and preserve the marine environment”. Article 194requires States， individually and jointly， to take all measures consistent with UNCLOS that are necessary to prevent， reduce and control pollution of the marine environment from any source， using the best practicable means at their disposal and in accordance with their capabilities. Article 194 further enumerates four sources of pollution： （a） the release of toxic， harmful and noxious substances； （b） pollution from vessels； （c） pollutions from installations and devices used in exploration or exploitation of the natural resources of the seabed and subsoil； and （d） pollution from other installations and devices operating in the marine environment. Finally，Article 204 provides that States shall， consistent with the rights of other States，endeavour to observe， measure， evaluate and analyze， by recognized scientific methods， the risks or effects of pollution of the marine environment.

Another treaty that builds on the UNCLOS framework is the 1992 CBD. This convention elaborates on what States should generally do to protect and preserve the environment in order to enhance the conservation and sustainable utilization of marine biodiversity.

UNCLOS and State practices， to a large extent， have provided not only the legal framework， but also adequate governance to protect marine ecosystem. Considering that the seafloor is not only fragile but also home to cables， there is a need to seek an undisturbed environment of balanced interests. Below is an examination of the interaction between cables and the oceans.

VII. Interactions between Submarine Cable Network and the Marine Environment

Recognizing the desirability of maintaining the tranquility of seas and oceans，UNCLOS in its preamble prays for “a legal order for the seas and oceans which will facilitate international communication， and will promote the peaceful uses of the seas and oceans， the equitable and efficient utilization of their resources， the conservation of their living resources， and the study， protection and preservation of the marine environment”.80Preamble， UNCLOS.

Notwithstanding the fact that the seas and oceans are being subjected to increasing pressure from varying technical construction， it is not moot that submarine cables， apart from facilitating international communications， representreasonable use of the sea.81In its 159 years of use， there has been no irreversible environmental impact in the laying and maintenance of telecommunications cables. See UNEP/ICPC Report， p. 28.Researches have indicated that cables have relatively benign effects on the marine environment. Moreover， there is no report indicating difference in abundance and diversity for organisms living close or away from a cable.82John Komuc and Catherine Creese， Studying the Impact of Seafloor Cables on the Marine Environment， Currents， Spring 2014， pp. 8～21.

A. Composition of Submarine Cables

When designing a submarine cable， consideration is given to its ability to withstand pressure from water， waves， currents and other natural forces that affect the seabed. Since most of these forces change with depth， designing cables to meet these challenges has been a quest for over 160 years.83UNEP/ICPC Report， p. 17.The development of fiber-optic submarine cables during the late 1970s and early 1980s was considered revolutionary in the telecommunications industry. A fiber-optic cable is， generally，composed of a core supporting pair of hair-like optical fibres surrounded by a layer of wire to provide strength， wrapped with a copper conductor to power the repeaters or amplifiers that process the light signals. A case of polyethylene dielectric and wire armour is added for protection.84UNEP/ICPC Report， p. 18.

Compared to other submarine structures， such as pipelines and fishing trawls，telecommunication cables are more compatible with environmental protection because they are smaller and composed of non-toxic materials that are stable in sea waters.

B. Environmental Impact Assessment （EIA） Process

Despite its being benign to the seabed， fibre-optic cables may still interact with benthic environment. Such interactions may be evaluated by assessing and monitoring the biota before and after cable installation.85UNEP/ICPC Report， p. 31.

EIA is “an analysis of a project’s effects on the natural environment and its purpose is to ensure that any environmental effects of cable laying and maintenance are taken into account before authorization is provided to lay a cable on theseabed”.86UNEP/ICPC Report， p. 29.

In relation to submarine cables， many countries require an EIA to be carried out as part of the permit requirements for laying and repairing cables.87Within its territorial sea， States may require an EIA. For instance， within the European Union， the EIA Directive 85/337/EEC （as amended by Directive 97/11/EC） does not require an EIA for the placement of submarine cables， though this may be required by the permitting system of individual Contracting Parties. In Germany， an EIA has to be provided in the framework of the application procedure. See OSPAR Commission， Assessment of the Environmental Impacts of Cables-Biodiversity Series， 2009， p. 13.EIAs range from “provision of relevant technical information and a statement of compliance with environmental accreditation， to a brief environmental review，to a comprehensive analysis that includes formal public and/or governmental consultations.”88OSPAR Commission， Assessment of the Environmental Impacts of Cables-Biodiversity Series， 2009， p. 13.

In assessing the potential effects of activities within the territorial sea， States are obligated to carry out EIAs before they permit the laying of submarine cables. Article 206 of UNCLOS provides that

When States have reasonable grounds for believing that planned activities under their jurisdiction or control may cause substantial pollution of or significant and harmful changes to the marine environment， they shall， as far as is practicable， assess the potential effects of such activities on the marine environment and shall communicate reports of the results of such assessments in the manner provided in article 205.

Being benign to the seabed， the laying and repairing of submarine cables do not cause pollution89Based on a definition produced by UNSECO’s Inter-governmental Oceanographic Commission and the UN’s Group of Experts on the Scientific Aspects of Marine Pollution （GESAMP）， Article 1 of UNCLOS defines pollution as “［t］he introduction by man， directly or indirectly， of substances or energy into the marine environment， including estuaries，which results or is likely to result in such deleterious effects as harm to living resources and marine life， hazards to human health， hindrance to marine activities， including fishing and other legitimate uses of the sea， impairment of quality for use of sea water and reduction of amenities”.or harmful changes to the marine environment. Thejoint report by United Nations Environment Programme （UNEP） and the ICPC90The ICPC is a non-governmental organization consisting of national telecommunications authorities and representatives from the cable industry. Its principal goal is to promote the safeguarding of undersea cables from human and natural hazards， as well as the funding of projects and programmes beneficial for the protection of cables.supports the benign disposition of submarine cables， concluding that “EIAs for cable operations are rare and are generally limited to a coastal State’s territorial sea”.91UNEP/ICPC Report， p. 30.

C. Cable Route Survey

A crucial part of route selection is to identify and understand the marine geopolitical boundaries of the proposed route. This preliminary phase is called desktop study （DTS）. Once potential cable landings have been identified， an efficient and secured route will be surveyed after assembling all available hydrographic and geological information， commission fisheries， permitting reports，and considering the location and history of existing nearby cables and other obstructions.92UNEP/ICPC Report， p. 21.The use of DTS makes for efficient survey that avoids hazard and/ or environmentally significant zones. It covers “water depth and sea topography，sediment type and thickness， marine fauna/flora communities， and potential natural or man-made hazards”.93UNEP/ICPC Report， p. 21.Acoustic-based echo-sounding， sonar and seismic systems are used in surveying cables routes.94UNEP/ICPC Report， p. 30.These systems focus mostly on the seabed surface and the few meters of sediment below the seabed， where cable burial is required. While research is still ongoing， “cable survey equipment is regarded as posing only a minor risk to the environment”.95UNEP/ICPC Report， p. 30.

D. Laying and Burial of Cables

The current practice is to bury cables into the seabed to protect them against faults. However， in rocky and sandy areas， cables may be placed on the seabed. The scientific method to assess the interaction between cables and seabed life is by “monitoring the biota before and after cable installation or in the case of installedcables， by comparing the biota at sites near and distant from a cable”.96UNEP/ICPC Report， p. 31.Apart from indicating that “cables have no or minimal impact on resident biota”，97UNEP/ICPC Report， p. 31. The localized and temporary nature of seabed disturbance associated with cable laying is also acknowledged by OSPAR Commission in the following words： “The laying of cables leads to seabed disturbance and associated impacts of damage， displacement or disturbance of flora and fauna， increased turbidity， release of contaminants and alteration of sediments. Along with noise and visual disturbance， these effects are mainly restricted to the installation， repair works and/or removal phase and are generally temporary”. See OSPAR Commission， Assessment of the Environmental Impacts of Cables-Biodiversity Series， 2009， p. 8.studies also showed that “cables provided a hard substrate for the attachment of anemones”.98UNEP/ICPC Report， p. 31.Furthermore， the possibility of leaching from the cables was found to be very remote since cables are composed of inert materials with no anti-fouling agents.99UNEP/ICPC Report， pp. 32～33.Recent findings have also shown that whale entanglements with submarine cables， a common phenomenon during the telegraphic era， have nowadays ceased completely following a transition to the fibre-optic systems.100UNEP/ICPC Report， p. 31.

E. Cable Repairs

Improved cable system design， increased awareness of cables by seabed users and the practice of burying cables， have greatly reduced the number of faults in cables. Nevertheless， faults still occur and damaged cables require repairing. Damaged cables are retrieved from the seabed by towing a grapnel across the path of the cable， cutting the cables and retrieving both ends. The damaged cable is thereafter placed on the repair ship where a new section is then inserted to replace the damaged cable. The repaired cable is re-buried with the aid of a jet-equipped remote vehicle （ROV）. Since few grapnel runs are required for this process， seabed disturbance is reduced.101UNEP/ICPC Report， p. 34.

F. Cable Removal

Apart from the life span102Fibre optic cables have a design life of 20～25 years.of a cable coming to an end， advance in new technologies could result in cables being discarded. Once this happens， theirremoval from the seabed may be considered. One of the remarkable effects of the “telecom bubble” was the extraordinary rise in the number of submarine cable systems either retired or taken out of service （“OOS Cables”）. To provide a guideline for the owners of these cable systems， the ICPC issued its recommendations representing an agreed position by international owners and operators of submarine cable systems.103For a detailed discussion of the ICPC recommendation， see ICPC Recommendation No. 1，Management of Redundant and Out-of-Service Cables， Issue 12B， 6 May 2011.Removal may result in disturbances， and studies have shown that the “degree of disturbance is closely related to the type of substrate”.104UNEP/ICPC Report， p. 34.Cables extracted from sandy and muddy sediments will have little or no impact on the seabed. In contrast， those extracted from clay may leave some impacts on the seabed topography. Additionally， those laid on the rocky surface that could support epifauna need not be removed.105UNEP/ICPC Report， p. 34.

By and large， “disturbances and impacts caused by cable laying and repairs must be viewed in the context of the frequency and extent of these activities”.106UNEP/ICPC Report， p. 34.For submarine cables， after the path proposed for its burial is cleared and the burial is done， the “seabed may not be disturbed again within the system’s design life”.107UNEP/ICPC Report， p. 34.Moreover， the one-time disturbance， is only “restricted mainly to a strip of seabed less than 5～8 metres wide”.108UNEP/ICPC Report， p. 34.The same could not be said of bottom trawl and dredge fishing operations， which are repetitive and more extensive and affect substantial areas of the seabed.109UNEP/ICPC Report， p. 34.

Studies have also shown that the time taken for the seabed to recover from cable related operations is less than that from trawl and dredge fishing operations. In Germany， Australia and Puget Sound， where low-impact vibrating ploughs were used in cable burial within the coastal wetlands and inter-tidal zones， reestablishment of vegetation took place within two to three years and full recovery happened within five years.110UNEP/ICPC Report， p. 35.Physical restoration of the seabed from cable related disturbance on the inner continental shelves in the North Sea， Straits of Messina，Bass Strait and Cook Strait is most rapid. The presence “of sandy substrates on the inner shelf facilitates recovery within days to months”.111UNEP/ICPC Report， p. 35.Benthic communitieswithin the same zone also recovered due to favourable environmental conditions.112UNEP/ICPC Report， p. 35.On the middle shelf， as observed in the Baltic Sea， physical dislocation of the seabed due to cable laying was erased by strong currents moving sediments to restore equilibrium. Recovery of fauna from burial disturbance in outer shelf and upper slope is more rapid due to the intensity of currents on sediments.113UNEP/ICPC Report， p. 36.

VIII. Cable Protection and the Marine Environment

Despite its improved design and resilience， modern submarine cable networks are still susceptible to threats. The majority of cable faults are traced to “external aggression” with high incidence from fishing， followed by anchoring， natural hazards， theft and piracy in order.

A. Cables/Fishing Interactions

One of the most common types of commercial fishing gear with a long history of cable interaction is the bottom trawl. Globally， bottom trawl fishing is acknowledged as the main cause of submarine cable faults.114Mick Green， Stephen Drew， Lionel Carter and Douglas Burnett， Submarine Cable Network Security， Presentation to APEC Submarine Cable Workshop Group， April 2009， at http：//74.125.113.132/search？q=cache9yxrwo21PBIJ：www.iscpc.org/information/Openl y%2520Published%2520Members%Area%2520Items/SubmarineCableNetworkSecurit y’pptthengchuntearthquake+eleven+ships+cable&cd=3&hl=en%ct=clnk%gl=us， 2 May 2016.Bottom trawl is a “cone-shaped assembly of lines and nettings that is dragged along the seabed behind a vessel”.115UNEP/ICPC Report， p. 45.Trawl doors are usually made of steel and wooden panels， each of which weighs approximately 100 kg. The line along the bottom of the net is often rigged with chains， rollers and steel bobbins. Damage to cables may occur when trawls come in contact with the seabed.116Stephen C. Drew and Alan G. Hopper， Fishing and Submarine Working Together， 2nd edition， Lymington： ICPC， 2009， p. 27.

Finding a balance entails choosing fishing techniques causing few faultsof cables117Fishing methods less likely to damage cables include midwater trawling， boat seining，midwater long lines and stationary gears fixed on stakes. See Stephen C. Drew and Alan G. Hopper， Fishing and Submarine Working Together， 2nd edition， Lymington： ICPC，2009， pp. 33～34.and avoiding or reducing impacts on vulnerable deep-water ecosystems. Some of the recent studies indicate that bottom trawling poses few threats to submarine cables. These findings reveal that “when a trawl crosses a communications cable lying on the seabed， more than 90 percent of such crossings do not result in cable damage”.118UNEP/ICPC Report， p. 46.Since most cables in trawling depths are armoured with protective covers， “there may be no apparent and discernible contacts at all”.119UNEP/ICPC Report， p. 46.Cables may further be protected by conducting surveys to identify the safest cable routes. Apart from maintaining cable awareness programmes， the best cable types must be selected for each part of the route.

B. Ship Anchors

Besides fishing， the next most common cause of cable faults is vessel anchors. A large vessel of about “5，000-tonne with a 4-tonne anchor could penetrate soft sediment to a depth of 5 metres”.120UNEP/ICPC Report， p. 47.Cable fault is likely to happen if such anchor lands on cables， especially those near busy ports. This can be avoided if cables are routed outside designated anchorage areas and port approaches. Recent studies indicate a remarkable increase in larger fleets with total tonnage exceeding 1 billion dwt （dead-weight tones）.121UNEP/ICPC Report， p. 50.Merchant ships are not only heavier but more numerous， heightening the risk to submarine network. In China， for instance， the revolution in the steel industry “has been accompanied by growth in the bulk carrier fleet required to transport iron ore， from Australia， India and Brazil’.122UNEP/ICPC Report， p. 50.Cables on the continental shelves that are traversed by vast ships with heavier anchors are susceptible to more risks. The balance here lies in proper identification and assessment of “trade routes where vessel traffic has changed and the relationship of those routes to cable location”.123UNEP/ICPC Report， p. 50.

C. Natural Hazards

A vast expanse of seas and oceans， from the coast to the abyss， is constantly exposed to natural hazards. A natural hazard is a “naturally occurring physical phenomenon caused by rapid or slow onset events， influenced by atmospheric，oceanic and geological forces that operate on timeless scales of hours to millennia”.124UNEP/ICPC Report， p. 38.Such hazards range from weather-related disturbances， earthquakes， volcanic eruptions to climate change.125UNEP/ICPC Report， p. 38.As a consequence， the “coastal areas are exposed to flooding and erosion by surging seas and waves， while the seabed are scoured by currents and waves and the shelves inundated by sediments from major rivers”.126UNEP/ICPC Report， p. 38.These sediments which are sometimes transported by abyssal ocean currents to at least 6，000 metres depth have the potential to affect cables on the continental shelf.127UNEP/ICPC Report， p. 39.A case in point is Typhoon Morakot， which struck Taiwan in 2009，resulting in excessive rain fall which caused rivers to flood and carry large volumes of sediments to the ocean.128UNEP/ICPC Report， p. 40.The sediments were so massive that they triggered severe landslides that broke a succession of cables off eastern and western Taiwan as well as the nearby Philippines.129UNEP/ICPC Report， p. 40.Earthquake-triggered landslides in countries like Papua New Guinea and Algeria have also led to severe damage to cables and serious disruption in submarine networks.130UNEP/ICPC Report， p. 40.

Sea level rise can and do have serious impacts on submarine cables， because “rising sea level may heighten the risk of erosion and flooding of coastal facilities in regions subject to hurricanes and other intense storms”.131UNEP/ICPC Report， p. 41.Cables laid on the seabed are exposed to abrasion from eroding currents and waves.

In recent times， cable failures caused by natural processes are not minor， but have reduced considerably due to “improved cable design， installation technique and protection measures”.

D. Theft

Incidences of cable theft have become a serious problem in many parts of the world following the rise in metal prices. Thefts of submarine cables have direct effects on a country’s socio-economic development and national security. As indicated in many reports， the problem is wide spread as both developed and developing countries are implicated. In the UK and the US， reducing cable theft is one of the highest priorities of security agents. In China， there were 190，000 recorded incidents of theft of telecommunication facilities in 2006， up from 53，000 in 2005. In South Africa， the Power Utility Eskom lost cables valued at R20 million in 2006. In 2007， Vietnamese fishermen stole about 43 km （26 miles） of fibre optic cables from the South China Sea floor - 11 km of TVH （Thailand-Vietnam-Hong Kong） line and 32 APCN （Asian Pacific Cable Network）. This resulted in a serious disruption of Vietnamese international communication.132Vietnam Makes More Arrests over Submarine Cables Thefts， Brunei Press， 25 June 2007，at http：//www.brusearch.com/news/11336， 2 May 2016.

E. Piracy and Terrorism

Apart from faults from anchors and fishing gears， vicious and hostile actions directed at submarine cables by pirates and terrorists are on the increase. The 2007 high seas depredations on submarine cable systems by Vietnamese pirates and the 2010 destruction of submarine cables by the terrorists in the Philippines are well documented.133Douglas R. Burnett， Note to Navy： It’s Time to Pay Attention to Security for Undersea Cables-crucial to Global Communications and Commerce， and Vital to Our National Interests， Proceedings， August 2011， p. 69， at http：//www.squirepattonboggs.com/～/ media/files/insights/publications/2011/08/cable-vision/files/cablevisionburnettaug11/ fileattachment/cablevisionburnettaug11.pdf， 25 May 2016.Cable locations are in public domain， even anarchists are aware of them.134Douglas R. Burnett， Note to Navy： It’s Time to Pay Attention to Security for Undersea Cables-crucial to Global Communications and Commerce， and Vital to Our National Interests， Proceedings， August 2011， p. 69， at http：//www.squirepattonboggs.com/～/ media/files/insights/publications/2011/08/cable-vision/files/cablevisionburnettaug11/ fileattachment/cablevisionburnettaug11.pdf， 25 May 2016.When it comes to security， submarine cables， especially those lyingon the seabed outside territorial waters， are “international orphans”135Douglas R. Burnett， Note to Navy： It’s Time to Pay Attention to Security for Undersea Cables-crucial to Global Communications and Commerce， and Vital to Our National Interests， Proceedings， August 2011， p. 68， at http：//www.squirepattonboggs.com/～/ media/files/insights/publications/2011/08/cable-vision/files/cablevisionburnettaug11/ fileattachment/cablevisionburnettaug11.pdf， 25 May 2016.， which are thus susceptible to attacks from pirates and terrorists. The unique and strategic importance of submarine cables calls for its protection from hostile actions of pirates and terrorists.

The first international legal instrument on the legal regime covering sea terrorist acts is the IMO Convention on the Suppression of Unlawful Acts against the Safety of Maritime Navigation （hereinafter “SUA”）.136Convention for the Suppression of Unlawful Acts of Violence Against the Safety of Maritime Navigation （10 March 1988） and 2005 Protocol for the Suppression of Unlawful Acts of Violence Against the Safety Fixed Platforms on the Continental Shelf.The protections of submarine cables are however omitted， since the SUA regime primarily addresses matters pertaining to the “security of vessels， navigational aids， and offshore facilities”.137Douglas R. Burnett， Note to Navy： It’s Time to Pay Attention to Security for Undersea Cables-crucial to Global Communications and Commerce， and Vital to Our National Interests， Proceedings， August 2011， p. 68， at http：//www.squirepattonboggs.com/～/ media/files/insights/publications/2011/08/cable-vision/files/cablevisionburnettaug11/ fileattachment/cablevisionburnettaug11.pdf， 25 May 2016.Probably due to this fact， “terrorist and pirate attacks on cables lying outside territorial seas are unlikely to be considered crimes under international law and most national laws”.138Douglas R. Burnett， Note to Navy： It’s Time to Pay Attention to Security for Undersea Cables-crucial to Global Communications and Commerce， and Vital to Our National Interests， Proceedings， August 2011， p. 68， at http：//www.squirepattonboggs.com/～/ media/files/insights/publications/2011/08/cable-vision/files/cablevisionburnettaug11/ fileattachment/cablevisionburnettaug11.pdf， 25 May 2016.

Several international treaties， such as the 1884 Convention， the High Seas Convention and the UNCLOS， require States to make laws imposing sanctions against individuals and vessels that injure international submarine cables willfully or by culpable negligence. UNCLOS， for instance， contains elaborate provisions for the protection of submarine cables beneath the high seas. Article 113 obligates States to adopt laws and regulations necessary to provide that it is punishable offence for a ship flying its flag or a person subject to its jurisdiction to willfully or through culpable negligence break or injure a submarine cable beneath the high seas （or EEZ） in such a manner as to be liable to disrupt communications. This provision shall also apply to conduct calculated or likely to result in such breakingor injury.139To date， only Australia and New Zealand have very effective legal regimes to deter acts that might result in cable faults. See Douglas R. Burnett， Note to Navy： It’s Time to Pay Attention to Security for Undersea Cables-crucial to Global Communications and Commerce， and Vital to Our National Interests， Proceedings， August 2011， p. 68， at http：// www.squirepattonboggs.com/～/media/files/insights/publications/2011/08/cable-vision/ files/cablevisionburnettaug11/fileattachment/cablevisionburnettaug11.pdf， 25 May 2016.It shall however not apply to any break or injury caused by persons who acted merely with the legitimate object of saving their lives or their ships， after having taken all necessary precautions to avoid suck break or injury.140Other provisions are Articles 114 and 115 of UNCLOS.There is the argument that theft and terrorist acts directed against submarine cables in the high seas could be considered piracy under UNCLOS.141Article 101 of UNCLOS provides： Piracy consists of any of the following acts： （a） any illegal acts of violence or detention， or any act of depredation， committed for private ends by the crew or the passengers of a private ship or a private aircraft， and directed （i）on the high seas， against another ship or aircraft， or against persons or property on board such ship or aircraft； （ii） against a ship， aircraft， persons or property in place outside the jurisdiction of any State.Piracy confers on any State a common jurisdiction to board， search， seize ship and cargo and arrest， prosecute in its own court system and punish offenders. However， there is no comparable legal framework for submarine cables. It is suggested here that similar jurisdiction treatment recognized for centuries to piracy should be extended to vicious attacks against cables. Pirates and terrorists attack cables linking every nation， and thus become the enemy of all States （hostis humani generis）. The critical role played by submarine cables to socio-economic development and national security can not be overstated. It has been described as “the physical tie that binds the world together， allowing torrents of digital data， video， and telecommunications to course throughout the world uninterrupted on a 24/7 basis”.142Douglas R. Burnett， Note to Navy： It’s Time to Pay Attention to Security for Undersea Cables-crucial to Global Communications and Commerce， and Vital to Our National Interests， Proceedings， August 2011， p. 67， at http：//www.squirepattonboggs.com/～/ media/files/insights/publications/2011/08/cable-vision/files/cablevisionburnettaug11/ fileattachment/cablevisionburnettaug11.pdf， 25 May 2016.Depredation committed against these vital global networks should come under universal jurisdiction， and each State has the prerogative to prosecute or extradite the offenders.

Given the fragile nature of the marine environment where the extensive and growing networks are laid and maintained， threats posed by pirates and terrorist attacks will not only harm submarine cables but will definitely dislocate sensitive ecosystems and marine life.

Since no single government or agency can respond effectively on its ownto acts of piracy and terrorism against submarine cables， all stakeholders need to “cooperate in the exchange of information， participation in exercises and mutual support of actions to deter， or punish individuals or groups of individuals who engage in or threaten to engage in hostile actions against cables or cable ships”.143Article 10 of the ICPC Draft Convention for the Protection and Repair of Submarine Cable 2008.Moreover， the global collaborative counter-measures suggested above must be effective， dependable， timely and rapid.

The emerging threats posed to submarine cables by terrorist and pirates also call for an effective international partnership between the government and the private-sector.144Michael Sechrist， Cyberspace in Deep Water： Protecting Undersea Communication Cables by Creating an International Public-Private Partnership， 23 March 2010， at http：// belfercenter.ksg.harvard.edu/files/PAE_final_draft_-_043010.pdf， 26 May 2016.What is envisaged here is a proactive， strategic and all-inclusive security arrangement， involving the government， international non-governmental organizations， civil society groups， maritime communities and the industry.145David H. Capie and Paul M. Evans， The Asia-Pacific Security Lexicon， Singapore： Institute of Southern Asian Studies， 2002， pp. 98～107.

F. Cable Protection Zone and Marine Sanctuary

The increasing human and natural stresses on the marine environment and cable operations have promoted coastal States to establish cable protection zones （CPZs），146A cable protection zone is a large area of the seabed protected from fishing and anchorage. See N. T. Shears and N. R. Usmar， The Role of the Hauraki Gulf Cable Protection Zone in Protecting Exploited Fish Species： de facto Marine Reserve？， Dco Research & Development Series， No. 253， 2006， p. 27， at http：//www.doc.govt.nz/Documents/scienceand-technical/drds253.pdf， 26 May 2016.marine protected areas （MPAs）147A marine protected area is a site of special designation that could affect the marine environment. They are areas designated for some form of protection where fishing access could be affected by regulations as well as those which might be considered “de facto”. Some of these sites may be coastal， sub tidal or intertidal. See Al J. Didier ed.， Marine Protected Areas of Washington， Oregon and California， December 1998， at http：//wdfw. wa.gov/publications/01136/wdfw01136.pdf， 26 May 2016.and sanctuaries.148Sanctuaries are designated discrete areas in coastal and ocean waters to promote comprehensive management of their special conservation， recreation， ecological，historical， research， educational， or aesthetic resources. See Al J. Didier ed.， Marine Protected Areas of Washington， Oregon and California， December 1998， at http：//wdfw. wa.gov/publications/01136/wdfw01136.pdf， 26 May 2016.One of the first countries to establish a protected zone was “Australia which set up the Great Barrier Reef Marine Park in 1975 to provide environmental protection for the reef whileallowing but regulating activities such as fishing， shipping and tourism”.149UNEP/ICPC Report， p. 53.In 2007，Australia， through the Australian Communication and Media Authority （ACMA），made two declarations for submarine cable protection. Described as nationally significant， the Southern Cross Cable， linking Australia’s communications network with those in New Zealand， Fiji and the United States， and the Australia-Japan cable， connecting Australia with Japan via Guam， are protected by establishing protection zones. Activities prohibited within the zones are “marine activities that pose a serious risk of damage to submarine cables”， such as “towing， operating， or suspending from ship trawl gear designed to work on or near the seabed or a midwater trawl”.150At http：//www.acma.gov.au/WEB/STANDARD/pc=， 2 May 2016.Certain activities are restricted in the zones to reduce the risk of damage to cables. Such restrictions vary with either distance from shore， water depth or both. For instance， anchoring is permitted within the CPZ between 0～500 metres from low-water mark but not permitted in waters greater than 100 meters depth.151At http：//www.acma.gov.au/WEB/STANDARD/pc=， 2 May 2016.Under this category， activities near shore where cables are buried several metres below the seabed and housed in metal conduit may continue.152At http：//www.acma.gov.au/WEB/STANDARD/pc=， 2 May 2016.Activities not affected within the CPZ are those that do not have “contact with the seabed as well as certain recreational activities that occur within 500 metres of the shore”.153At http：//www.acma.gov.au/WEB/STANDARD/pc=， 2 May 2016.As crucial as defence is， submarine cables are accorded protective priority in Australia. Where submarine CPZs overlap with defence practice areas， the Defence Department sets requirements on the “direction for firing ammunition， the use of inert practice rounds and the use of targets”.154At http：//www.acma.gov.au/WEB/STANDARD/pc=， 2 May 2016.The law establishing the CPZ sets out numerous penal sanctions in relation to the zone， which are “aimed at deterring behavior that poses a risk of damage to submarine cables”.155It is an offence within the zone： to cause damage to， or to sever a submarine cable；engage in negligent conduct that results in damage to a cable； or engage in activity that is prohibited or restricted in a protection zone. At http：//www.acma.gov.au/WEB/ STANDARD/pc=， 2 May 2016.“Engaging in these activities may result in imprisonment for a period of up to 10 years and/or a fine of $330，000”.156At http：//www.acma.gov.au/WEB/STANDARD/pc=， 2 May 2016.

One of the tools that are used to ensure the sustainable use and protection and conservation of marine biological diversity and ecosystems in Europe isthe establishment of MPAs. The Convention for the Protection of the Marine Environment of the North-East Atlantic （hereinafter “OSPAR Convention”） 1992，provides for the protection of the marine environment of the Convention area. A key part of OSPAR’s biodiversity strategy is to establish a network of MPAs.157At http：//jncc.defra.gov.uk/page-3370， 6 May 2016.In the United Kingdom， its marine policy seeks among other things to ensure sustainable development by establishing MPAs and CPZs.158UK Marine Policy Statement， March 2011， at https：//www.gov.uk/government/uploads/ system/uploads/attachment_data/file/69322/pb3654-marine-policy-statement-110316.pdf，26 May 2016.The United States also created regimes to protect MPAs， sanctuaries and undersea cables.159Al J. Didier ed.， Marine Protected Areas of Washington， Oregon and California， December 1998， at http：//wdfw.wa.gov/publications/01136/wdfw01136.pdf， 26 May 2016.

IX. Conclusion

As demonstrated from the above analysis， the main point of interaction of cables with the marine environment is the benthic zone of the oceans where the majority of the cables lie. Cables pose minimal impacts on life in the marine environment. And the equilibrium between the two can be enhanced if States are committed to meeting their obligations under UNCLOS and international law， enacting and enforcing domestic law to protect cables， and partnering the industry on security matters. Moreover， seabed users/developers should be firmly committed to sustainable development. Cable owners and those engaging in deep seabed activities should exercise due regard to each other. This could be done by privileging dialogue and exchange of information between them.160Douglas Burnett， Michael W. Lodge， Gwenaëlle Le Gurun and Alice Leonard De Juvigny， Submarine Cables and Deep Seabed Mining， Advancing Common Interests and Addressing UNCLOS “Due Regard” Obligation， Technical Study， No. 14， 10-11 March 2015.The economic opportunities that the sea offers need to be aligned with the protection and enhancement of its unique environment. Public-private partnership is crucial to the achievement of sustainable oceans that are healthy， biologically diverse and capable of delivering important socio-economic benefits. Although substantial progress has been made through science and technology， there is a need to invest more on research and new science and to share the knowledge that is emergingon the interactions of submarine cables with the marine environment.161The first UN World Ocean Assessment on all aspects of the ocean encourages further research to define and recommend responsible strategies in the light of increased pressure on the oceans as the world population increases. See the First World Ocean Assessment，Chapter 19 ［Submarine Cables and Pipelines］， at http：//www.un.org/depts/los/global_ reporting/WOA_RPROC/Chapter_19.pdf， 2 May 2016.When knowing that sustainable win-win solutions are increasingly possible for what might sometimes be seen as competing interests or activities， all stakeholders have the potential to make positive contribution to a better marine environment.

© THE AUTHOR AND CHINA OCEANS LAW REVIEW

* Kingsley Ekwere， Senior Lecturer， Faculty of Law， University of Port Harcourt， Nigeria. E-mail： kekwere@yahoo.com.