Exploring Mobile LearningTools Used in Autonomous Learning：a Perspective from China

GE Zigang（葛子刚）

School of Network Education，Beijing University of Posts and Telecommunications，Beijing 100088，China

Introduction

In distance education or e-learning，autonomous learning is often a necessity，as students usually are job-holders and don't have much time to do synchronous learning.But as e-learning is characterized by separation of time and space，e-learners'autonomous learning is really hard to be supervised by teachers or instructors.But with the development of mobile technologies，teachers are enabled to track the learning processes of learners more easily.This paper desires to give an overview of various mobile learning tools used in autonomous learning.

According to some scholars，autonomous learning means that the learners will manage their own learning，set their learning targets，choose their learning materials，decide the pace of their learning process，and evaluate their learning results［1-2］.Littlewood held that autonomous learning included two essential elements：one was the sense of responsibility during learning，and the other was the transference of all or part of teachers'responsibilities to learners［3］.This opinion is echoed by many scholars.For example，Benson thought that autonomous learning implied that learners acquired the ability of independent learning［4］.Chinese scholars like Pang also believed that the essence of autonomous learning was self-surveillance directed by learning targets［5］.

Autonomous leaning has its own advantages and disadvantages.On one hand，many scholars express their favor for autonomous learning.Deci and Ryan believed that the ability of autonomous learning often decided the outcome of learning［6］.Sheerin held the idea that autonomous learning ability was the ultimate product of any successfully designed course［7］.On the other hand，some scholars have also expressed their worries about the negative side of autonomous learning.Dickinson and Carver pointed out that in language learning，due to the complex nature of language acquisition，autonomous learning often couldn't lead to good results［8］.Some other scholars also pointed out that without teachers'instruction and guidance，learners would often be at a loss in their autonomous learning，and their learning would be inefficient［9］.

Autonomous learning can also be adopted in e-learning.It is believed that autonomous learning must be adjusted to the characteristics of e-learners in the e-learning environment［10］.Just as mentioned in the previous part，autonomous learning requires learners to have a high level of self-management ability.But in China，most e-learners don't have the required ability，which can be seen from the high dropout rate at e-learning colleges［11］.With the development of mobile technologies and social network services（SNS），the surveillance of e-learners'autonomous learning processes has been easier and much more convenient.

It is generally acknowledged that the concept of autonomous learning is started by Holec in the 1980's.It originated in the western culture，so it was often arguable whether this kind of learning concept could be applied in the oriental culture.Jones pointed out that the concept of autonomous learning reflected western values，which implied that this concept may not be applicable in the oriental culture［12］.Ho and Crookall even believed that autonomous learning and Chinese traditional educational norms were a paradox［13］.However，some scholars hold an opposite viewpoint.Littlewood thought that there were no cultural boundaries in autonomous learning［3］.Qi concluded from a questionnaire survey that the widespread value of collectivism in the Chinese culture actually could provide a good environment for autonomous learning［14］.In some micro studies，some scholars testified to the feasibility and necessity of the application of autonomous learning in college English education［15］.

Mobile learning comes together with e-learning.Crompton defined mobile learning as“learning across multiple contexts，through social and resource interactions，using personal electronic devices”［16］.Mobile tools can facilitate learners'interaction with their instructors and peers and enable them to access learning resources anytime and anywhere.In autonomous learning，learners normally will conduct their own studies at their own wills and make their own choices about learning resources.But this does not mean that autonomous learners do not need interaction with their instructors or peers.They still need help from others.On one hand，mobile learning can be adopted by autonomous learners to facilitate their learning processes.On the other hand，learners'autonomy can make them more willing to accept mobile learning［17］.To some extent，autonomous learning is a target，and mobile learning is a tool used to reach the target.The following part of this paper tries to classify mobile learning tools into different types according to their different features and functions，with the aim to apply them more effectively in autonomous learning.

1 Classification of M obile Learning Tools

1.1 Concept of mobile learning tools

In this paper，the term“mobile learning tools”is used in its broad sense，which includes mobile learning devices，mobile learning software，mobile learning resources，and mobile learning services.Mobile learning devices refer to all of the portable devices which can be used for learning，such as smart phones，laptop computers，personal digital assistant（PDA），MP3and MP4players，and tablet PC（IPad，Android Pad）.Mobile learning software refers to those applications which can be installed in mobile learning devices.Mobile learning resources include all kinds of learning materials which can be stored and played by mobile learning devices.Mobile learning services include blogs，micro-blogs，SNS，and instant messaging services，etc.Based on the requirements in Introduction，the following classification can be made about mobile learning tools according to their features and functions.

1.2 Classification of mobile learning devices

Mobile learning devices can be classified according to their different functions or applicable situations in learning；for example，if we want to practice our listening comprehension ability，we may use an MP3player，but if we want to imitate native speakers'pronunciations，we may want to see a native speaker speaking in a video played by an MP4player or a tablet PC.

（1）Smart or not

On one hand，with the popularity of IOS and the emergence of Android，smart mobile devices have gained a sudden popularity across the world.Iphone，Ipad，Android phones，and Android pads belong to the so-called smart mobile devices.They can store，read，and delete learning resources.They can be installed with many applications just like computers.With various applications，people can do business，entertain themselves，and do their learning by using the devices.On the other hand，non-smart devices are still used by many learners，such as most MP3and MP4players，traditional mobile phones，and some learning machines.These devices generally are cheaper than those smart devices.

Smart and non-smart devices both have their advantages and disadvantages.Smart devices have many functions and can be installed with many applications.We can find many learning materials which can only be accessed through smart devices，so learners are often attracted to use them and they will enjoy the convenience of learning enabled by smart devices.However，with so many learning materials，learners are often at a loss about which resource is the best and which is the most suitable to themselves［18］.Sometimes，the novelty of smart devices will distract learners from their learning.Some learners will indulge in entertaining themselves with smart devices but delay or neglect their learning.Non-smart devices are usually single-functioned，and intended with clear learning targets for learners.

（2）Big or small screen

The size of the screens of mobile devices often affects the learning process and learning results.We can classify mobile devices into big-screened devices（screen size equals or is bigger than 5inch），small-screened devices（screen size is smaller than 5inch），and those with no screen.Samsung，a South Korean mobile phone maker started the fashion of big-screened mobile phones，with its popular Note I，whose screen is 5.3inches in diagonal.Ipad，a 9.7-inch（diagonal）big-screened pad，which is produced by the Apple Corporation，also wins its popularity across the world.Big screens normally can better display text or media files，and enable users to have a better interaction with the devices.

（3）Multi-functional or single-functional

Some mobile devices can perform various functions；for example，smart phones can be used to record sounds and images and can also be used for note-taking.These multi-functional devices normally are smart devices and can be installed with various applications to perform various functions.Some other mobile devices are single-functional，such as the once popular Walkman，which can only be used to play CDs or tapes.

1.3 Classification of mobile learninig software

Mobile learning software normally can be classified according to their running environments and intended purposes.

（1）Online or offline

Some mobile learning software can only be used online，which means the learners first need to access the Internet.Software of this kind includes some dictionary and encyclopedia applications.As the contents of these dictionaries and encyclopedias are very big，it is not feasible for us to download all the resources onto our devices.We often have to access the Internet before we can use them.The offline software includes video or audio recording applications and office file applications，etc.

（2）PC software or software for handheld devices

With the popularity of mobile phones and tablet PC，more and more software originally designed for PC is now adapted to the operating systems of mobile devices.At present，the most popular mobile operating systems are IOS，Android OS，and Windows Phone OS.Unfortunately，most applications for mobile devices are weaker in function than those designed for PC.

（3）Interactive or non-interactive

Some learning software can interact with learners，such as MyET，an English learning tool，which can instantly give a feedback to learners on their English speaking practice（see Fig.1）.

Fig.1 MyET's instant feedback on learner's English pronunciation

1.4 Classification of mobile learninig resources

Learning resources can be classified in different ways for different purposes.For example，Fowler and Mayes'classification of learning resources into primary courseware，secondary courseware，and tertiary courseware was based on their understanding of the learning process［19］.Rehak and Mason classified them into four types（digital assets，information objects，learning activities and learning design）according to their relationship to an activity or task oriented learning contexts［20］.The classification presented in the following part is largely based on the access modes of the resources.

（1）Online or offline

Some learning resources can only be used online and cannot be downloaded onto mobile learning devices for offline use.Such resources normally need to be paid before they can be used.They are generally copyrighted and protected by some computer programs and cannot be freely downloaded or distributed.Some other resources are intended for offline use，and they do not involve the problem of copyright and can be freely distributed and downloaded onto mobile devices.

（2）Interactive or non-interactive

Some learning resources are designed to interact with learners.Only through interactive activities can learners complete the learning processes.Figure 2shows an interactive learning resource，which requires learners to connect the animals and their food.

Fun activities

Matching the animals with their food

Fig.2 An example of interactive learning resource

As interactive learning resources usually need to be carefully designed and involve too much computer programming，they are still less in amount compared with non-interactive learning resources.Non-interactive learning resources generally include traditional text and audio-visual files.These files can teach learners some knowledge but cannot interact with learners.

（3）Synchronous or asynchronous

Synchronous learning resources usually are obtained when learners interact with their instructors or peers.Synchronous classes organized by most cyber education colleges in China belong to this type.Asynchronous learning resources refer to those which can be obtained asynchronously，such as downloaded videos and word files.Moreover，synchronous learning resources can be transformed into asynchronous learning resources.For example，if the synchronous classes are recorded，then the recorded videos can be distributed to learners for their asynchronous use.

1.5 Classification of mobile learninig services

（1）Unidirectional or bidirectional

Unidirectional learning services generally can be used by teachers to publish learning resources.Blogs are generally used for this purpose.Blogs originally are developed with the aim to share personal ideas with others.Blogs do not emphasize interaction between the blog writer and blog readers.Bidirectional learning services put more emphasis on the interaction between the instructor and the learners and are more commonly used for exchanging ideas.Twitter and QQ belong to this type.Learners can organize themselves into study groups by using the two services.WeChat（in Chinese：Weixin）is a newly provided social service by a Chinese company Tencent，and it seems to have become widespread overnight.Many e-learners use this service to discuss learning resources with their teachers and friends.

（2）Active or passive

Active learning services can actively push or provide related information or learning resources to learners.For example，many SNS like Facebook（facebook.com），Renren（renren.com），and Pengyou（pengyou.com）can automatically push some registered users you may know when you log into them（see Fig.3），providing that you have entered your personal information in the systems.Of course，sometimes such kind of pushed information is not what you really want.

Passive learning services lack this function.Users need to search for the information they need.Online encyclopedias and dictionaries belong to this type of service.But as the concept of SNS has become very widespread，passive learning services gradually become active in some aspects.For example，if you want to look up a word in an online dictionary，it will automatically provide some other words and phrases related to the word（see Fig.4）.

Fig.3 Pushed information on the website of Pengyou

Fig.4 An online dictionary

2 Application of Mobile Learning Tools in Autonomous Learning

From the above classification of various mobile learning tools，we may find that different mobile tools usually have different features and can cater to different needs.The following part is a general analysis of how to apply these tools in autonomous learning.

2.1 Mobile learning tools for goal-setting

It is generally believed that we need to set our learning targets before we actually start our leaning process.In autonomous learning，learners are left on their own，and they often feel at a loss as to what to study［9］.This is especially true for those with low self-management abilities.To help these students，teachers can use some mobile learning services to give students an outline of the course，and point out the most essential points of the course，which will enable autonomous learners to have a better understanding of the course and thus form their own learning targets.Usually，unidirectional learning services such as blogs can better fulfill this purpose.Bidirectional services such as micro-blogs and QQ are not suitable for this purpose，because these two are generally used for social interaction and cannot make teachers'instruction prominent among massive interaction activities.

2.2 Mobile learning resources for autonomous learning

Learning resources are the major part of the autonomous learning process.Text files and multi-media files are the most frequently adopted forms of learning resources.Generally speaking，online learning resources are more diversified and can appear in a variety of formats，such as text files and audio-visual files［21］.However，some students still favor offline learning resources，because these resources can be used without the connection of the internet.Although 3G and 4Ghave been known to the world，it is still not possible for us to access the Internet anywhere and anytime.Internet access prices still need to be considered，especially in remote areas where the Internet infrastructure is not well constructed.Interactive learning resources usually can more effectively increase students'interest in learning，but often require the use of more advanced mobile devices.Learners need to take all of these into consideration before they know what resources are the most suitable for themselves.

2.3 Mobile learning tools for supervison of learning processes

Just as mentioned in the first part of this paper，it is very hard for teachers to track the e-learners'learning processes［11］.But with some mobile learning tools，things have changed.For example，the teacher can use QQ or We-Chat to require the students to respond to certain questions related to their learning resources within a certain time limit.The teacher can even organize e-learners to join a video conference through mobile learning services such as QQ or Skype［18］.

2.4 Mobile learning tools for learners to seek help

In autonomous learning，learners often come across many difficult questions they cannot answer by themselves.Learners need some effective learning tools to seek timely help from their teachers or peers.One way to tackle this problem is to do collaborative learning by using mobile learning tools.Collaborative learning is defined as a situation where learners try to learn something together［22］.Various studies have proven the effectiveness of collaborative learning.According to Chiu，people engaged in collaborative learning can share each other's resources and skills［23］.Ge's study confirmed the usefulness of peer review for improving e-learners'writing skills［24］.By information sharing，learners can get improvements together.Autonomous learners can do collaborative learning with the help of various mobile learning tools，with the aim to provide help to each other.E-mails and mobile phones are commonly used to serve this purpose.But these two tools have their shortcomings.For example，the teacher from whom a student seeks help may not respond to the e-mails in time.The delayed response often makes learners lose confidence or interest in autonomous learning.Similarly，mobile phones are effective for voice communication but cannot provide detailed text explanations for learners.In order to make mobile learning tools really effective，teachers need to be very responsible in providing help to their students.

3 Conclusions

A summary of autonomous learning and a classification of various mobile learning tools are provided which can be adopted in autonomous learning.The mobile learning tools are classified into four types：mobile learning devices，mobile learning software，mobile learning resources，and mobile learning services.Then the four types are further classified according to their different features and functions.Based on the classification，ageneral suggestion is given for the application of mobile learning tools in autonomous learning.In this paper，it points out that mobile learning tools can help autonomous learners set their learning targets，and can enable teachers to effectively and conveniently supervise learners'learning processes and provide timely help to students.

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